And yet the basic mood of the sanguine is optimistic. He sees the world in bright and joyful colors. Loves a change of scenery, welcomes changes in life. The sanguine person has a large circle of acquaintances, he is always glad to meet new people, he is happy to make contact and sometimes enter into a trusting relationship with people whom he had not even seen yesterday. He is not afraid of a change of scenery: in any situation, he is like a fish in water.

Sanguine loves to talk and feels at his best in all matters. He speaks confidently and smartly, speaks loudly and distinctly. Therefore, those around him, as a rule, listen to him. His cheerful nature attracts people, and the sanguine easily makes friends. Of course, the handwriting of a sanguine person also has a high speed (after all, his nervous processes are fast).

This nature is captivating. If a sanguine person is interested in what he does, he is ready to move mountains. It is difficult to imagine a more active person. "Figaro here - Figaro there." But the sanguine person needs a constant novelty of impressions. If suddenly interest is lost and irritants have disappeared, he honors himself as lonely and abandoned.

It is sometimes difficult to imagine that this cheerful and active person can suddenly become lethargic and lethargic. And it's all the same sanguine. He just lost interest in the case. And if his work, God forbid, is monotonous and routine, then the sanguine person turns from a cheerful person into a weakling - until a new impulse to life appears, he will not budge. In such cases, his handwriting suddenly becomes not dynamic and bright, but slow and as if crushed. Therefore, sanguine people should put their energy into finding a dynamic and interesting job for themselves. Otherwise, he will turn into a boring and indifferent person to everything.

Characteristics of the phlegmatic temperament.

The phlegmatic in his temperament is not at all like the sanguine. And yet they have something in common: like a sanguine person, a phlegmatic person is able to fall into the same stupor at work. But the point here is not in interest - phlegmatic is quite satisfied with calm and measured activity. Just due to the fact that he lacks general mobility and vigor, the phlegmatic may well “stagnate”. It needs to be kicked, shaken, sometimes even annoyed. Without these external stimuli, the phlegmatic becomes inert and completely unmovable. It is clear that his handwriting will be slow in speed, but balanced and stable in style.

All these qualities of his - calmness, moderation, slowness - are manifestations of a phlegmatic temperament. Many people miss them, and we look with envy at the good-natured phlegmatic. His mood does not jump like a squirrel in the spring. He is balanced and thorough. All this is a consequence of his slow mental processes. No matter how hard you try, you will not be able to get the phlegmatic out of himself: he will "persist" in his complacency.

Phlegmatic is generally distinguished by perseverance. If he started to do some business, then be sure - he will finish it. However, often such people annoy us precisely with their solidity and calmness. You wait - you expect a response from them - but that is still not there. The phlegmatic shows little emotion: such is the nature of his temperament. Therefore, you should not expect bright manifestations of feelings from him. Probably, it is better to be imbued with its advantages and more loyally look at its shortcomings. Or constantly shake it up, not allowing it to “stagnate”.

Choleric temperament - characteristic.

Of course, a choleric person may well stir up a phlegmatic person - he already has more than enough bad energy. However, why stupid? What is wrong with the fact that a person is constantly fast, active and cannot sit still? It's boring without them. With some sanguine and phlegmatic people, the world would become understandable and monosyllabic. But with choleric people, it's a completely different matter. Sometimes you don’t understand anything about them: why did they run around, fuss? What is the reason for their concern? What makes them gesticulate furiously, defending a seemingly not particularly relevant issue?

To do all this makes them, of course, irrepressible temperament. The processes of excitation in their nervous system prevail over the processes of inhibition - this is the main property of their nervous activity. Therefore, it is difficult for a choleric person to sit still. He is impulsive, unrestrained and quick (and we see these qualities in his nervous, angular, quick handwriting).

Of course, such a person rarely reaches the golden mean: he is either joyfully excited (by a business, meeting or event), or, conversely, quick-tempered and irritable. All this is understandable: at first, the choleric person puts all of himself into some kind of enterprise, and therefore suddenly ... his strength is depleted. He himself does not notice how it happened. Had I known, I would have been insured. But the choleric does not think about it at all. He works hard.

Of course, its results are sometimes impressive: what a phlegmatic person would do for a week, a choleric person manages to do in two hours. If he is fascinated by the business (and this is the best option for him), he works with enthusiasm, overcoming any difficulties - he can handle everything. In addition, the choleric person knows how to convince - his speech is incendiary, and his gestures and movements are expressive and eloquent. Such one convinces by the strength of his personality alone.

Sometimes his feelings overwhelm him. In his impulse, he cannot stop and take a break. He rushes at full speed and therefore often misjudges situations or people. These mistakes boomerang back to him. And it is precisely at such a moment when the choleric is already completely exhausted and unable to resist. Then he becomes irritable, angry and harsh. His mood is already at zero, and here you are with your problems! And it does not matter that he himself is to blame for these problems: he will not be responsible for them (by the way, his handwriting will become difficult to read - because he does not care what you think of him!).

If you want to achieve a result from a choleric, try to understand the essence of this contradictory nature. If you see that he is already exhausted, step aside and let him recover. Otherwise, you will just run into rudeness. Moreover, choleric people are usually truth-tellers and simply love to tell a person in person everything that they think about him (even if they later regret it).

Characteristics of the melancholic temperament.

Often, melancholics turn out to be an enthusiastic audience of choleric people. True, choleric people are not always aware of this. After all, melancholic people are good at hiding their feelings. They generally do not like to flaunt themselves - in any capacity, even as an audience.

The fact is that melancholic people tend to deeply experience what is happening. You may not be aware of this: outwardly, a melancholic is usually calm and inconspicuous. When deep and complex feelings are awakened inside him, he will live by them for a long time. Moreover, these feelings have not only a long duration, but also a special power. That is why melancholic people are so vulnerable and fragile psychologically. They are afraid to express their feelings, because in response they may not get the reaction that they expect. And melancholic people know this. They are touchy and forget their grievances and sorrows badly (and outwardly, mind you, this may not manifest itself at all). Psychological trauma makes them even more closed and unloved.

Melancholics do not get along well with people and have a hard time getting used to new situations. Over the years, this comes easier to them, but in their youth they look shy and awkward. Their embarrassment is usually clearly visible. But this is just a property of their temperament - their mental processes are just slow and the reaction to irritations is also slow. The handwriting of such people is slow and neat. It is also characterized by a complete lack of embellishments - after all, melancholic people are very modest and will not attract attention to themselves with the help of intricate trinkets.

Melancholics sometimes spare their feelings and try to get carried away less: they know how difficult it will be for them if feelings come flooding over them in a wave. Therefore, they often choose for themselves a calm and monotonous job that will not surprise them and will not provoke a negative reaction from them. Outwardly, such people look boring, but if you get to know them better, you will find behind their nondescript appearance a huge and bright inner world.

You have read this description and you have probably identified yourself with some type.

Happened? Are you sanguine or choleric? Not one or the other, but everything put together? And rightly so - after all, pure types are practically never found in life. Of course, you can determine which type of temperament prevails in you, and then catch the shades of other temperaments. And of course, one should not think that one temperament can be better than another (even if only a certain set of qualities appeals to you). All this is a game of nature. And so it's pointless to fight it. Wouldn't it be better to take the best that she gave you and try to develop what you lack?

So, temperament should be understood as individually unique properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of a person’s mental activity, which are equally manifested in a variety of activities, regardless of its content, goals, motives, remain constant in adulthood and in their mutual connection characterize the type of temperament. Specific manifestations of the type of temperament are diverse. They are not only noticeable in the external manner of behavior, but seem to permeate all aspects of the psyche, significantly manifesting themselves in cognitive activity, the sphere of feelings, motives and actions of a person, as well as in the nature of mental work, speech features, etc.

At present, science has enough facts to give a complete psychological description of all types of temperament according to a certain harmonious program. However, to compile the psychological characteristics of traditional 4 types, the following main properties of temperament are usually distinguished:

sensitivity is determined by what is the smallest force of external influences necessary for the occurrence of any mental reaction of a person, and what is the rate of occurrence of this reaction.

Reactivity characterized by the degree of involuntary reactions to external or internal influences of the same strength (a critical remark, an offensive word, a sharp tone - even a sound).

Activity indicates how intensely (energetically) a person influences the outside world and overcomes obstacles in achieving goals (persistence, focus, concentration).

The ratio of reactivity and activity determines what human activity depends on to a greater extent: on random external or internal circumstances (moods, random events) or on goals, intentions, beliefs.

Plasticity and rigidity indicate how easily and flexibly a person adapts to external influences (plasticity) or how inert and inert his behavior is.

The rate of reactions characterizes the speed of various mental reactions and processes, the rate of speech, the dynamics of gestures, the speed of the mind.

Extraversion, introversion determines what the reactions and activities of a person mainly depend on - from external impressions that arise at the moment (extrovert), or from images, ideas and thoughts related to the past and future (introvert).

Emotional excitability is characterized by how weak the impact is necessary for the occurrence of an emotional reaction and at what speed it occurs.

Considering all the listed properties, J. Strelyau gives the following psychological characteristics of the main classical types of temperament:

sanguine. A person with increased reactivity, but at the same time, his activity and reactivity are balanced. He vividly, excitedly responds to everything that attracts his attention, has a lively facial expression and expressive movements. On an insignificant occasion, he laughs out loud, and an insignificant fact can make him very angry. It is easy to guess his mood, attitude to an object or person by his face. He has a high threshold of sensitivity, so he does not notice very weak sounds and light stimuli. Possessing increased activity and being very energetic and efficient, he actively takes up a new business and can work for a long time without getting tired. Able to quickly concentrate, disciplined, if desired, can restrain the manifestation of his feelings and involuntary reactions. He is characterized by quick movements, flexibility of mind, resourcefulness, a fast pace of speech, a quick inclusion in a new job. High plasticity is manifested in the variability of feelings, moods, interests and aspirations. Sanguine easily converges with new people, quickly gets used to new requirements and environment. Effortlessly not only switches from one job to another, but also retrains, mastering new skills. As a rule, he responds more to external impressions than to subjective images and ideas about the past and future, an extrovert.

Choleric. Like the sanguine person, it is characterized by low sensitivity, high reactivity and activity. But in a choleric person, reactivity clearly prevails over activity, so he is unbridled, unrestrained, impatient, quick-tempered. He is less plastic and more inert than the sanguine. Hence - greater stability of aspirations and interests, greater perseverance, difficulties in switching attention are possible, he is rather an extrovert.

Phlegmatic person has a high activity, significantly prevailing over low reactivity, low sensitivity and emotionality. It is difficult to make him laugh and sad - when they laugh loudly around him, he can remain unperturbed. When in big trouble, he stays calm. Usually he has poor facial expressions, movements are inexpressive and slow, as well as speech. He is unresourceful, with difficulty shifting attention and adapting to a new environment, slowly rebuilding skills and habits. At the same time, he is energetic and efficient. Differs in patience, endurance, self-control. As a rule, he finds it difficult to meet new people, weakly responds to external impressions, an introvert.

Melancholic. A person with high sensitivity and low reactivity. Increased sensitivity with great inertia leads to the fact that an insignificant occasion can cause tears in him, he is overly touchy, painfully sensitive. His facial expressions and movements are inexpressive, his voice is quiet, his movements are poor. Usually he is insecure, timid, the slightest difficulty makes him give up. The melancholic is not energetic, unpersistent, gets tired easily and has little work capacity. It is characterized by easily distracted and unstable attention and a slow pace of all mental processes. Most melancholics are introverts.

Temperament and activity

The dynamic traits of a person's personality appear not only in the external manner of behavior, not only in movements - they also appear in the mental sphere, in the sphere of motivation, in general performance. Naturally, the peculiarities of temperament affect in training sessions and in work activities. But the main thing is that the differences in temperaments are differences not in the level of the capabilities of the psyche, but in the originality of its manifestations.

The absence of correlation between the level of achievements was established, i.e. the end result of actions, and the characteristics of temperament, if the activity takes place in conditions that can be defined as normal. Thus, regardless of the degree of mobility or reactivity of an individual in a normal, non-stressful situation, the results of activity will in principle be the same, since the level of achievement will depend mainly on other factors, in particular on the level of motivation and abilities. At the same time, studies that establish this pattern show that, depending on the characteristics of temperament, the way the activity itself is carried out changes.

Even B.M. Teplov drew attention to the fact that, depending on the characteristics of temperament, people differ not in the final result of actions, but in the way they achieve results. Developing this idea, a number of domestic researchers conducted research in order to establish the relationship between the method of performing actions and the characteristics of temperament. In these studies, an individual style of activity was considered as a way to achieve results or a way to solve a certain problem, mainly due to the type of nervous system. The results of studies by the vast majority of authors, regardless of the characteristics of the groups under study and experimental situations in which the typical way of performing actions for these individuals was studied, show that it is the type of nervous activity, and above all the strength and mobility of nervous processes, that has a significant impact on the formation of a certain style. activities.

Congenital features of temperament are manifested in a person in such mental processes that depend on upbringing, social environment and the ability to control their reactions. Therefore, according to R.M. Granovskaya, a specific reaction to a situation can be determined both by the influence of the characteristic differences of the nervous system, and be the result of training and professional experience. For example, a high reaction rate in an experienced driver, pilot, boxer is not necessarily a natural property of their nervous system; it can also be achieved as a result of training and education. However, the limits of the possible development of the reaction rate are determined by the innate properties of the nervous system.

Professional selection helps to identify applicants with the most suitable psycho-physiological qualities for a given specialty, since some of the qualities required by some professions are difficult to train, they are limited by the properties of temperament. For example, it is known that an underdeveloped sense of time or a low speed of a motor reaction can be developed through individual training only within certain limits. For the purpose of professional selection, tests have been developed that allow evaluating the characteristics of attention, the accuracy of time estimation, the speed of a motor reaction, etc. for various specialties. Not only professional selection is important, but career guidance as well; the choice by each person of such a labor activity that would correspond not only to his interests, but also to his individual characteristics and capabilities. Studies show that people who have undergone professional specialization, taking into account their psychophysiological characteristics, experience great satisfaction from their work, which has the most favorable effect on their productivity.

The productivity of a person's work is closely related to the characteristics of his temperament. So, the special mobility (reactivity) of a sanguine person can bring an additional effect if the work requires a change in objects of communication, occupation, frequent transition from one rhythm of life to another. A false impression may be created that people who are inert (phlegmatic) do not have advantages in any kind of activity, but this is not true: it is they who are especially easy to carry out slow and smooth movements, they show a preference for stereotypical methods of action, punctually observing once adopted order. People who are characterized by a weak nervous system - melancholics, are more motivated to perform simpler actions than others, they are less tired and annoyed by their repetition. It has been experimentally shown that sanguine and choleric people show less resistance and reduced productivity in situations where the conditions and methods of activity are strictly regulated and do not allow the inclusion of individual techniques.

In order to optimize training and education, it is important for a teacher to take into account the possible type of temperament of his pupils in his activities. Here are some tips given by R.M. At the same time, any act of his must be demanding; and fairly valued. At the same time, negative assessments are necessary only in a very energetic form and as often as necessary to improve the results of his work or study. A sanguine person should be constantly assigned new, if possible, interesting tasks that require concentration and tension from him. It is necessary to constantly include him in active work and systematically encourage his efforts.

The phlegmatic person needs to be involved in vigorous activity and interested. It requires systematic attention. It cannot be quickly switched from one task to another. In relation to the melancholic, not only harshness, rudeness, but also simply an elevated tone, irony are unacceptable. About the misconduct committed by the melancholic, it is better to talk with him alone. He demands special attention, you should praise him in time for the shown successes, determination and will. A negative assessment should be used as carefully as possible, mitigating its negative effect in every possible way. The melancholic is the most sensitive and vulnerable type. You have to be extremely gentle and kind with him.

Thus, the way a person implements his actions depends on temperament, but their content does not depend on it. Temperament is manifested in the features of the course of mental processes, affecting the speed of recollection and the strength of memorization, the fluency of mental operations, the stability and switchability of attention.

CHARACTER

In psychology, the concept character(from the Greek. charakter - “seal”, “chasing”), means a set of stable individual characteristics of a person that develops and manifests itself in activity and communication, causing her typical ways of behavior.

When they determine the character of a person, they do not say that such and such a person showed courage, truthfulness, frankness, that this person is courageous, truthful, frank, i.e. these qualities are the properties of a given person, traits of his character, which can manifest themselves under appropriate circumstances. Knowing the nature of a person makes it possible with a significant degree of probability to foresee and thereby correct the expected actions and deeds. It is often said about a person with character: "He should have done just that, he could not have done just that, he could not have done otherwise - such is his character."

However, not all human features can be considered characteristic, but only essential and stable ones. If a person, for example, is not polite enough in a stressful situation, then this does not mean that rudeness and incontinence are a property of his character. Sometimes even very cheerful people can experience a feeling of sadness, but this does not make them whiners and pessimists.

Acting as a lifetime education of a person, character is determined and formed throughout a person's life. The way of life includes the way of thoughts, feelings, impulses, actions in their unity. Therefore, as a certain way of life of a person is formed, the person himself is formed. An important role here is played by social conditions and specific life circumstances in which a person’s life path passes, based on his natural properties and as a result of his deeds and deeds. However, the actual formation of character occurs in groups of different levels of development (family, friendly company, class, sports team, work team, etc.). Depending on which group is the reference group for the individual and what values ​​it supports and cultivates in its environment, the corresponding character traits will develop among its members. Character traits will also depend on the position of the individual in the group, on how he integrates in it. In the team, as a group of a high level of development, the most favorable opportunities are created for the formation best features character. This process is mutual, and thanks to the development of the individual, the team itself develops.

The content of the character, reflecting social influences, influences, constitutes the life orientation of the individual, i.e. her material and spiritual needs, interests, beliefs, ideals, etc. The orientation of the personality determines the goals, the life plan of a person, the degree of his life activity. The character of a person implies the presence of something significant for him in the world, in life, something on which the motives of his actions depend, the goals of his actions, the tasks that he sets himself.

Decisive for understanding character is the relationship between socially and personally significant for a person. Every society has its own major and essential tasks. It is on them that the character of people is formed and tested. Therefore, the concept of "character" refers more to the attitude of these objectively existing tasks. Therefore, character is not just any manifestation of firmness, perseverance, etc. (formal persistence can be just stubbornness), but focus on socially significant activities. It is the orientation of the personality that underlies the unity, integrity, strength of character. Possession of the goals of life is the main condition for the formation of character. A spineless person is characterized by the absence or dispersion of goals. However, the nature and orientation of a person are not the same thing. Good-natured and cheerful can be both a decent, highly moral person, and a person with low, unscrupulous thoughts. The orientation of the individual leaves an imprint on all human behavior. And although behavior is determined not by one impulse, but by an integral system of relations, something always comes to the fore in this system, dominating it, giving a peculiar flavor to a person’s character.

In the formed character, the leading component is the persuasion system. Conviction determines the long-term direction of a person's behavior, his inflexibility in achieving his goals, confidence in the justice and importance of the work he performs. Character traits are closely related to the interests of a person, provided that these interests are stable and deep. The superficiality and instability of interests are often associated with great imitation, with a lack of independence and integrity of a person's personality. And, conversely, the depth and content of interests testify to the purposefulness and perseverance of the individual. The similarity of interests does not imply similar features of character. So, among rationalizers one can find people cheerful and sad, modest and obsessive, egoists and altruists.

Indicative for the understanding of character can also be the affections and interests of a person related to his leisure. They reveal new features, facets of character: for example, L.N. Tolstoy was fond of playing chess, I.P. Pavlov - towns, D.I. Mendeleev - reading adventure novels. Whether a person's spiritual and material needs and interests dominate is determined not only by the thoughts and feelings of the individual, but also by the direction of his activity. No less important is the correspondence of a person's actions to the set goals, since a person is characterized not only by what she does, but also by how she does it. Character can only be understood as a certain unity of direction and mode of action.

People with a similar orientation can go completely different ways to achieve goals and use their own, special, techniques and methods for this. This dissimilarity also determines the specific character of the individual. Character traits, having a certain motivating force, are clearly manifested in a situation of choosing actions or ways of behaving. From this point of view, as a character trait, one can consider the degree of expression of an individual's achievement motivation - his need to achieve success. Depending on this, some people are characterized by the choice of actions that ensure success (showing initiative, competitive activity, striving for risk, etc.), while others are more likely to simply avoid failures (deviation from risk and responsibility, avoiding manifestations of activity, initiative, etc.).

Teaching about character - characterology has a long history of development. The most important problems of characterology for centuries have been the establishment of types of character and their definition by its manifestations in order to predict human behavior in various situations. Since character is a lifetime formation of a personality, most of its existing classifications proceed from grounds that are external, mediated factors in the development of a personality.

One of the most ancient attempts to predict human behavior is the explanation of his character by the date of birth. A variety of ways to predict the fate and character of a person are called horoscopes. In practice, all horoscopes are compiled in the same way: the generally accepted time period is divided into certain intervals, each of which is assigned a certain sign, symbol. The description of a person's character is given through the prism of the various properties of this symbol. However, the characters of people born at the same time, according to different horoscopes, turn out to be different. So, for example, in accordance with the horoscope of the Druids, who connect human characters with trees, a person born in the interval from December 22 to January 1 is an apple tree. According to the horoscope, the apple tree is rarely tall, there is a lot of cuteness in it, a lot of charm, cordiality. Inspires the thought of love, even when she herself does not think about it. According to the astrological signs of the Zodiac, a person born between December 22 and January 20 is Capricorn. According to this horoscope, this suggests a stubborn character, the most persistent, hardy, hidden, secretly proud. Lives in reality, overcoming troubles and obstacles. Oriental horoscopes establish 12-year cycles, each of which passes under the sign of some animal. A person born in a certain year receives a number of innate properties, in accordance with which his character is formed. However, the comparison of the characteristics of similar animals in Japanese or, say, Chinese horoscopes also differs significantly.

No less popular are attempts to link a person's character with his name. Recently, this branch of characterology has received a new impetus for development. Theorists of this direction believe that the determining influence of a person's name on his character is caused by the following factors. On the one hand, the maximum growth rate of muscle tissue in a child is observed in the first months of life, on the other hand, at the same time, the most frequent range of sounds that a child observes is his own name. The baby does not imitate the sounds he hears, but imitates the voiced facial expressions. As a result, the child reflexively excites nerve impulses precisely in those muscle groups - facial, articulatory and respiratory, which are involved in pronouncing the name. The metabolism in the muscles where the impulse occurs accelerates against the background of already rapid growth. In the end, these small, but noticeable in their influence on the structure of facial muscles, facial muscles will be accentuated developed. That is why people with the same names look alike. In a similar way, the character is formed, which in Antonov is contradictory, stubborn, persistent; Vladimirov's are thinner and more solid; Boriss, on the other hand, are prone to leadership, proud, balanced, but not without ardor, etc.

Significant influence on the development of characterology was exerted by physiognomy (from the Greek physis - "nature", gnomon - "knowing") - the doctrine of the relationship between the appearance of a person and his belonging to a certain type of personality, due to which the psychological characteristics of this type. Already Aristotle and Plato proposed to determine the character of a person, looking for features of similarity with some animal in his appearance, and then identifying his character, as in the eastern horoscope, with the character of this animal. So, according to Aristotle, a nose as thick as that of a bull meant laziness, a wide nose with large nostrils, like that of a pig, - stupidity, a nose like that of a lion - importance, hair thin, like the wool of goats, sheep and hares, - timidity, hard hair, like that of lions and wild boars - courage.

The most famous was the physiognomic system of Johann Kasper Lavater, who considered the study of the structure of the head, the configuration of the skull, facial expressions, etc. to be the main way of understanding the human character. So, according to Lavater, Goethe's genius is most evidenced by his nose, which "marks productivity, taste and love - in a word, poetry."

When determining the character of a person, physiognomists used a variety of signs as defining ones. So, in addition to the nose, attention was paid to the human mouth. Lavater wrote in his “Physiognomy”: “Everything that human nature contains is put into its mouth. Both in a calm state and in the endless variety of their movements, they contain a whole world of characters. They are the main residence of reason and madness, strength and weakness, virtue and vice, the delicacy of human rudeness, they are the residence of love and hatred, sincerity and hypocrisy, humility and pride, truth and lies. relaxed lips are a sign of possessing “feminine” character traits (softness, courtesy), and the more - the more pronounced (for example, a stupid person has his mouth open at all). This was explained by the fact that even when a person laughs, a certain mask reflexively appears on his face, which is appropriately associated with the character. A smile can be self-satisfied, sweet, happy, bright, cold, mocking, meek, stupid, etc. The characteristic attitudes of a person are manifested not only in the facial expressions of his mouth, but also in speech. The character of a person is revealed both in the content of speech, i.e. in what this person mainly talks about, and in the form of speech, in the way he speaks. Great writers often emphasized the character of the characters in their works through their speech. Hail Prostakova: “Lies! Oh, she's a beast! Lies! As if noble! ..”, testifies to the heartlessness, rudeness, cruelty of the “noble” noblewoman in relation to her devoted Eremeevna.

However, the most important indicator of character was the eyes of a person. Even the ancients said: "The eyes are the mirror of the soul." Aristotle pointed out that large, good-natured, but bulging eyes are a sign of stupidity. L.N. Tolstoy distinguished, for example, cunning eyes, radiant, bright eyes, sad, cold, lifeless. He wrote: “There are people who have only laughing eyes - these are cunning and selfish people. There are people whose mouth laughs without eyes - they are weak, indecisive people, and both of these laughter are unpleasant.

At present, under these purely fictional facts, they are trying to bring scientific evidence. American psychologists J. Glive and E. Clery, after a five-year study of the character traits of about 10 thousand children, proved that children with dark eyes have more life, initiative and a more restless character than children with bright eyes. In adults, some deviations are possible. The authors argue that people with dark blue eyes are very persistent, but tend to be sentimental. They easily give in to moods, remember grievances for a long time, are capricious, sometimes their actions are unpredictable. People with dark gray eyes are stubborn and courageous, they are persistent and achieve their goal, despite various difficulties. They are quick-tempered and vindictive. Jealous, mostly monogamous. Those who have dark brown eyes are cheerful, witty, quick-tempered, but quick-witted. They are amorous, but not very constant. As a rule, they are sociable, love humor, easily converge with people. Often they act recklessly, after which they are tormented by remorse. Owners of light brown eyes are shy, prone to solitude, dreamy, hard to endure the offense inflicted on them. Hardworking, diligent, you can rely on them - they will not let you down. Blue eyes indicate romantic inclinations, but at the same time, selfishness and conceit. The blue-eyed ones are easily amenable to impulses, but quickly cool down. Their undeniably positive feature is truthfulness. As for people with green and gray-green eyes, then, as J.Glive and E.Clery assure, in most cases they have a strong will, resolutely and rigorously go towards their goal. They are persistent. They are tough and intractable.

As a separate direction of characterology, one can single out the determination of the individual characteristics of a person by his posture, body position. According to some psychologists, the character is most clearly revealed in the posture of a person: how he stands, how he walks, how he sits, and even in what position he falls asleep. In everyday consciousness, for example, there is an opinion that arrogant people more often tilt their bodies back, stick out their chests, throwing their heads back. The sycophant leans forward all over, his gaze ingratiating, although there is a barely noticeable cunning laugh in the corners of his eyes, a wide, obsequious smile on his face.

And here is how women are characterized by the posture in which they sit on a chair, modern characterology. If a woman prefers to sit on the edge of a chair, squeezing her knees, then she is very active, cheerful, restless. He constantly grabs at everything, not finishing what he started to the end. They are too impatient, but they involve in any undertaking even those who do not like this or that work. They spend the whole day in trouble, but they do not see the end in the next days. The position crosswise in the area of ​​the knees, the legs extended forward, and the hands lying on the knees - a type of selfish, self-satisfied, narcissistic women. She tries to attract attention at all costs and strives to show herself smarter than others in all matters. If she fails, she becomes aggressive or retires to a dark corner. Too curious. Legs stretched forward, one slightly ahead of the other, “speak” of an unstable, quarrelsome character. These women believe that they know everything, and only in exceptional cases admit their mistakes. Their perseverance to convince the interlocutor of their own rightness quickly bothers. Despite this, their arguments are often irresistible, and in many matters logic is on their side.

Palmistry has no less famous and rich history than the physiognomic trend in characterology. Palmistry (from the Greek cheir - “hand” and manteia - “fortune-telling”, “prophecy”) is a system for predicting a person’s character traits and his fate according to the skin relief of the palms. Palmistry has been known since ancient times, but it flourished most in the 16th-18th centuries, when there were departments of palmistry in many universities in Europe. In its origins, palmistry is closely related to astrology, since the main signs of the hand that are taken into account are the "7 hills" in the palm, called the names of the Sun and planets: Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury, Mars and the Moon.

Until recently, scientific psychology has consistently rejected palmistry, but the study of the embryonic development of finger patterns in connection with heredity gave impetus to the emergence of a new branch of knowledge - dermatoglyphics. In particular, it was shown that the formation of the pattern of the palms of each person, as well as the development of the brain, occurs at 3-4 months of intrauterine development and is due to the same influence of the gene set of the parents or chromosomal abnormalities of the fetus. Therefore, palmistry should be considered rather as an anatomical or physiological feature of the body, and it can be put on a par with the constitutional direction of characterology, of which E. Kretschmer was a prominent representative. Kretschmer considered character in connection with the structure of the body as the mental constitution of a person, corresponding to his bodily constitution, and explained character, ultimately, by innate, primarily endocrine factors.

However, at present, neither anthropology, nor anatomy, nor psychology have any reliable data that a person’s character depends on the structure of the body, facial configuration, eye color, etc. Does it follow from this that the determination of a person's character on the basis of the study of his appearance is impossible? It probably makes sense to recall the statement of Charles Darwin that it is essential for a physiognomist to know that “... each individual contracts mainly only certain muscles of the face, following his personal inclinations. These muscles may be more developed, and therefore the lines and wrinkles of the face, formed by their normal contraction, may become deeper and more visible. The connection between the appearance of a person and the warehouse of his character is clearly seen both in literary works and in the image of the great masters of portraiture. However, scientific psychology proceeds from the position that the relationship between the habitual facial expression of a person and the warehouse of his character is not unambiguous. This or that facial expression, folds, wrinkles can have a variety of causes. And here one cannot but agree with A.V. Petrovsky that the reason for a slightly ajar mouth can be not only the stupidity of a person, but also deafness, and a sick nasopharynx, and strained attention.

The most vivid, clear idea of ​​a person's character can be obtained by knowing the specifics of his actions, behavior, and activities. Movements and actions, the implementation of which becomes a need under certain conditions, as you know, are called habits. Here it is appropriate to recall the Eastern proverb: "Sow an act - you reap a habit, sow a habit - you reap a character, sow a character - you reap a destiny." The emphasis in it is on the habitual actions of a person, which, repeating themselves, become character traits, making up his being, influencing the position of a person in public life and the attitude of other people towards him. This was also pointed out by André and Gaston Durvili, according to whom the expression is a gesture fixed by a long repetition. The idea and its external image are closely related. That is why the movements of musicians are beautiful, harmonious, and weak-minded people are usually awkward in their movements. Fearful people, according to Durvili, betray themselves with discordant gestures. It is caused by "reckless fears that swirl through their minds. Their eyebrows, forehead, lips, arms, and legs also randomly gesticulate. If they want to say something, they can't because of stuttering. It is common for them to break a chair, sit on someone's hat, spill tea, etc.

In this respect, graphology, a science that considers handwriting as a kind of expressive movements that reflect the psychological properties of the writer, can be considered more valuable in diagnostic terms than, say, physiognomy. Graphological information, accumulated over the centuries, established a connection between two series of facts - the features of handwriting and character. Some of the connections were pretty obvious: "The eccentric (original) writes in a peculiar way, so it's easy to recognize him." Others are not so clear: "A strong slope expresses great impressionability."

In those days when writing was a professional art - calligraphy, it seemed obvious that writing was connected not only with the technique, skills and abilities of the author, but also with his spiritual and moral character. The calligrapher was subjected to the most severe requirements of asceticism, for pure writing required a person endowed with enormous self-control, with a rigid internal organization, in order to fully master the handwriting, so that nothing superfluous, nothing distorting the form, penetrated into the letter from the psyche. At present, unequivocal links between the graphic features of writing and the supposedly corresponding character traits are not confirmed. The dependence of handwriting on the emotional state and some typological properties of higher nervous activity has been most reliably established. The specific features of handwriting serve to diagnose certain mental illnesses. For example, the handwriting of patients with schizophrenia is often distinguished by pretentiousness, deliberate stylization.

Even N.A. Bernshtein noted that most of all the mechanics of the movement of a living organism is distinguished from the movement of a machine by the “redundancy of the degree of freedom”. The same action can be performed in many ways, so in each action it is possible to single out something that can be associated with the personal meaning of this action. Thanks to this, writers can very accurately convey the character of their hero. So, for example, M. Yuler-montov in the story "A Hero of Our Time" wrote: "His gait was careless, lazy, but I noticed that he did not wave his arms - a sure sign of some secrecy."

The most objective and irrefutable data about a person's character is provided not by his passport data, not by the features of his external appearance, not by his involuntary actions, but by conscious behavior. It is precisely by the fact that a person chooses not from possible actions in a given situation that his character is assessed. The nature of a person is quite multifaceted. This can be seen already in the process of activity: one does everything quickly, the other slowly and thoroughly, thinks carefully, acting for sure, and the third immediately grabs the job without thinking, and only after a certain period of time, without solving the problem from a swoop, examines and coordinates its actions, taking into account the circumstances. These features, distinguished in human behavior, are called traits, or sides, of character. Any trait is some stable stereotype of behavior.

However, character traits cannot be plucked out of the typical situations in which they appear, and, as noted above, in some situations even a polite person can be rude. Therefore, any character trait is a stable form of behavior in connection with specific, typical situations for this type of behavior.

According to Yu.M. Orlov, along with situations in which a certain trait of a person is found, its essential characteristic is the probability that this type of behavior will take place in a given situation. One can talk about any trait as a stable characteristic of a person if the probability of its manifestation in a certain situation is high enough. However, the probability means that this feature is not always manifested, otherwise it would just be a matter of mechanical behavior. Such an understanding of character traits is very similar to the manifestation of a person's habit: in certain conditions, to act in a certain way. Such a trait as altruism can manifest itself in the habit of helping everyone who needs it. A habit cannot always turn into a character trait, it is only a predisposition to act accordingly. A character trait includes a certain way of thinking, understanding. Volitional mechanisms are included in the commission of a characteristic act, feelings are involved. The habit does not include these components. At the same time, by conditioning a person's behavior, a character trait in behavior is formed. To become an altruist, one must constantly help people, although the first altruistic act could be caused by a random impulse. The formation of character traits cannot be divorced from the formation of behavioral motives. The motives of behavior, being realized in action, being fixed in it, are fixed in the character. Every efficient motive; which acquires stability, according to S.L. Rubinshtein, is potentially a future character trait in its genesis. In motives, traits of character appear for the first time in the form of tendencies; action then brings them into stable properties. The path to the formation of character traits lies, therefore, through the formation of proper motives for behavior and the organization of actions aimed at consolidating them.

The most common properties of character are located along the axes: strength - weakness; hardness - softness; integrity - inconsistency; breadth - narrowness. If the strength of character is understood as the energy with which a person pursues the set goals, his ability to get passionately carried away and develop a great effort of strength when meeting with difficulties, the ability to overcome them, then weakness of character is associated with the manifestation of cowardice, indecision, "asthenicity" in achieving the goal, instability of views, cowardice, etc. Firmness of character means rigid consistency, perseverance in achieving goals, defending views, etc., while softness of character is manifested in flexible adaptation to changing conditions, achieving a goal through some concessions, finding reasonable compromises. The integrity or inconsistency of character is determined by the degree of combination of leading and secondary character traits. If the leading and secondary features are in harmony, if there are no contradictions in aspirations and interests, then such a character is called integral, but if they contrast sharply, then contradictory. When they want to highlight a property that testifies to the versatility of a person’s aspirations and hobbies, the diversity of his activities, then they talk about the breadth or completeness of character. It can be said about such a person that nothing human is alien to them. As a rule, these are expansive people who always know how to give themselves with great spiritual generosity in such a way that at the same time they do not lose, but enrich themselves, joining in an ever new spiritual content. In contrast, people with a "narrow" character are prone to self-restraint, narrowing the scope of their interests, claims, and activities.

At the same time, the unity, versatility of character do not exclude the fact that in different situations the same person manifests different and even opposite properties. A person can be both very gentle and very demanding, soft and compliant and at the same time firm to the point of inflexibility. And the unity of his character can not only be preserved in spite of this, but it is precisely in this that it manifests itself.

Character is often compared with temperament, and in some cases these concepts are substituted for each other. In science, among the dominant views on the relationship between character and temperament, four main ones can be distinguished:

Identification of character and temperament (E. Kretschmer, A. Ruzhitsky);

Contrasting character and temperament, emphasizing the antagonism between them (P. Viktorov, V. Virenius);

Recognition of temperament as an element of character, its core, an invariable part (S.L. Rubinshtein, S. Gorodetsky);

Recognition of temperament as the natural basis of character (L.S. Vygotsky, B. Gananiev).

Based on the materialistic understanding of human phenomena, it should be noted that the common character and temperament is the dependence on the physiological characteristics of a person, and above all on the type of nervous system. The formation of character essentially depends on the properties of temperament, more closely related to the properties of the nervous system. In addition, character traits arise when the temperament is already sufficiently developed. Character develops on the basis, on the basis of temperament. Temperament determines in character such traits as balance or imbalance of behavior, ease or difficulty of entering a new situation, mobility or inertness of reaction, etc. However, temperament does not predetermine character. People with the same temperament properties can have a completely different character. Features of temperament can contribute to or counteract the formation of certain character traits. Thus, it is more difficult for a melancholic to form courage and determination in himself than for a choleric. It is more difficult for a choleric person to develop self-restraint than a phlegmatic one; a phlegmatic person needs to spend more energy to become sociable than a sanguine person, etc.

However, according to B. G. Ananiev, if education consisted only in the improvement and strengthening of natural properties, then this would lead to a monstrous uniformity of development. The specialization of education, for example, a melancholic, could only lead to the fact that he would turn into a hypermelancholic, a mimosa-like creature. Cultivating the properties of a phlegmatic person could be the result of creating a heavy style of mental activity, lack of flexibility, etc. This does not happen, because as the personality develops and the influence of the social environment grows, the relationship between character and temperament changes. Mastering his needs, feelings, thoughts on the basis of the development of character and will, a person begins to influence the manifestation of his temperament, to transform it. Probably, I.P. Pavlov had this in mind when he distinguished active phlegmatic from lazy phlegmatic.

The properties of temperament can, to some extent, even come into conflict with the character. In P.I. Tchaikovsky, the tendency to melancholy experiences was overcome by one of the main features of his character - his ability to work. “You always need to work,” he said, “and every honest artist cannot sit idly by, under the pretext that he is not in the mood. If you wait for the location and do not try to meet him, then you can easily fall into laziness and apathy. Disagreements very rarely happen to me. I attribute this to my being endowed with patience, and train myself never to give in to reluctance. I've learned to conquer myself."

In a person with a formed character, temperament ceases to be an independent form of personality manifestation, but becomes its dynamic side, consisting in a certain emotional orientation of character properties, a certain speed of mental processes and personality manifestations, a certain characteristic of expressive movements and actions of a person. Here we should also note the influence exerted on the formation of character by a dynamic stereotype, i.e. a system of conditioned reflexes that form in response to a steadily repeating system of stimuli. The formation of dynamic stereotypes in a person in various repetitive situations is influenced by his attitude to the situation, as a result of which excitation, inhibition, mobility of nervous processes can change, and, consequently, the general functional state of the nervous system. It is also necessary to note the decisive role in the formation of dynamic stereotypes of the second signal system, through which social influences are carried out.

Ultimately, the traits of temperament and character are organically linked and interact with each other in a single holistic image of a person, forming an inseparable alloy - an integral characteristic of his personality.

Character has long been identified with the will of a person, the expression "a person with character" was considered as a synonym for the expression "strong-willed person". The will is associated primarily with the strength of character, its firmness, determination, perseverance. When they say that a person has a strong character, they thereby seem to want to emphasize his purposefulness, his strong-willed qualities. In this sense, the character of a person is best manifested in overcoming difficulties, in the struggle, i.e. in those conditions where the will of man is manifested to the greatest extent. But character is not exhausted by force, it has a content that directs it, determining how the will will function under various conditions. On the one hand, in volitional deeds, character develops and manifests itself in them: volitional deeds in situations that are significant for the individual pass into the character of a person, fixing themselves in it as relatively stable properties of it; these properties, in turn, determine the behavior of a person, his volitional actions. Volitional character is distinguished by certainty, constancy and independence, firmness in the implementation of the intended goal. On the other hand, it is not uncommon for a weak-willed person to be called "spineless". From the point of view of psychology, this is not entirely true - and a weak-willed person has certain character traits, such as fearfulness, indecision, etc. The use of the term "characterless" means the unpredictability of a person's behavior, indicates the lack of his own direction, the inner core that would determine his behavior. His actions are caused by external influences and do not depend on himself.

The peculiarity of character is also reflected in the peculiarities of the flow of human feelings. This was pointed out by K.D. Ushinsky: “Nothing, neither words, nor thoughts, nor even our actions express ourselves and our attitude to the world so clearly and correctly, as our feelings: they hear the character of not a separate thought, not a separate decision, but the whole content of our soul and its structure. The connection between feelings and properties of a person's character is also mutual. On the one hand, the level of development of moral, aesthetic, intellectual feelings depends on the nature of a person's activity and communication and on the character traits formed on this basis. On the other hand, these feelings themselves become characteristic, stable features of the personality, thus constituting the character of a person. The level of development of a sense of duty, a sense of humor and other complex feelings is a fairly indicative characteristic of a person.

Of particular importance for characterological manifestations is the relationship of intellectual personality traits. The depth and sharpness of thought, the unusual posing of the question and its solution, intellectual initiative, confidence and independence of thinking - all this makes up the originality of the mind as one of the sides of character. However, how a person uses his mental faculties will depend significantly on character. Often there are people who have high intellectual data, but do not give anything of value precisely because of their characterological features. Numerous literary images of superfluous people serve as an example of this (Pechorin, Rudin, Beltov, etc.). As I.S. Turgenev well said through the mouth of one of the characters in the novel about Rudin: “There is perhaps genius in him, but no nature.” Thus, the real achievements of a person do not depend on some abstractly taken mental capabilities, but on a specific combination of his features and characterological properties.

In the most general form, all character traits can be divided into main, leading, setting the general direction for the development of the entire complex of its manifestations, and secondary, determined by the main ones. So, if we consider such traits as indecision, fearfulness and altruism, then with the prevalence of the first, a person first of all constantly fears “no matter how something happens” and all attempts to help one’s neighbor usually end in inner feelings and the search for justification. If the leading feature is the second trait - altruism, then the person outwardly shows no hesitation, immediately comes to the rescue, controlling his behavior with the intellect, but at the same time he may sometimes have doubts about the correctness of the actions taken.

Knowledge of the leading features allows you to reflect the main essence of the character, to show its main manifestations. Writers, artists, wishing to give an idea of ​​the character of the hero, first of all describe his leading, pivotal features. So, A.S. Pushkin put into the mouth of Vorotynsky (in the tragedy “Boris Godunov”) an exhaustive description of Shuisky - “a crafty courtier”. Some heroes of literary works so deeply and truly reflect certain typical character traits that their names become common nouns (Khlestakov, Manilov, Oblomov, Korchagin, etc.).

Although every character trait reflects one of the manifestations of a person's attitude to reality, this does not mean that any attitude will be a character trait. Only some relationships, depending on the conditions, become character traits. From the totality of the relationship of the individual to the surrounding reality, character-forming forms of relations should be distinguished. The most important distinguishing feature of such relations is the decisive, paramount and general vital importance of those objects to which a person belongs. These relationships simultaneously serve as the basis for the classification of the most important character traits. The character of a person is manifested in the system of relations:

1. In relation to other people (at the same time, one can distinguish such character traits as sociability - isolation, truthfulness - deceit, tact - rudeness, etc.).

2. In relation to the case (responsibility - dishonesty, diligence - laziness, etc.).

3. In relation to oneself (modesty - narcissism, self-criticism - self-confidence, pride - humiliation, etc.).

4. In relation to property (generosity - greed, frugality - extravagance, accuracy - slovenliness, etc.). It should be noted a certain conventionality of this classification and a close relationship, the interpenetration of these aspects of relations. So, for example, if a person shows rudeness, then this concerns his relationship to people; but if at the same time he works as a teacher, then here it is already necessary to talk about his attitude to the matter (bad faith), about his attitude towards himself (narcissism).

Despite the fact that these relationships are the most important from the point of view of character formation, they do not simultaneously and do not immediately become character traits. There is a certain sequence in the transition of these relations to the properties of character, and in this sense it is impossible to put in one row, say, the attitude towards other people and the attitude towards property, since their very content plays a different role in the real existence of a person. A decisive role in the formation of character is played by the attitude of a person to society, to people. The character of a person cannot be revealed and understood outside the collective, without taking into account his attachments in the form of camaraderie, friendship, love, etc.

In characterological terms, the most significant is not so much a quantitative characteristic as its qualitative moments: on what basis and how does a person establish contact with other people, how does he relate to people of different social status - to higher and lower, to older and younger, to people of the opposite sex . With long-term communication, the mutual influence of people on each other often leaves a significant imprint on their character, while both mutual assimilation is possible, when people become similar to each other as a result of a long life together, and the appearance of traits that are opposite, but complementary to each other. However, such relations, such forms of communication, which are formed in labor, in activity, act as leaders.

The relationship of a person with other people is decisive in relation to activity, giving rise to increased activity, tension, rationalization or, on the contrary, calmness, lack of initiative. The attitude to other people and to activity, in turn, determines the attitude of a person to his own personality, to himself. The correct, evaluative attitude towards another person is the main condition for self-esteem. It follows from this that the attitude towards other people is not only an important part of the character, but also forms the basis for the formation of a person's self-awareness, necessarily including the attitude towards oneself as an actor, which depends primarily on the very form of activity. When activity changes, not only the subject, methods and operations of this activity change, but at the same time there is a restructuring of the attitude towards oneself as an actor.

Despite the fact that the character is attributed to the individual characteristics of the personality, in the structure of the character, traits that are common to a certain group of people can be distinguished. Even the most original person can find some trait (for example, unusual, unpredictable behavior), the possession of which allows him to be attributed to a group of people with similar behavior. In this case, we should talk about typical in character traits. N. D. Levitov believes that the type of character is a specific expression in the individual character of traits common to a certain group of people. Indeed, as noted, the character is not innate - it is formed in the life and activity of a hundred people as a representative of a certain group, a certain society. Therefore, the character of a person is always a product of society, which explains the similarities and differences in the characters of people belonging to different groups.

Diverse typical features are reflected in the individual character: national, professional, age. Thus, people of the same nationality are in the conditions of life that have developed over many generations, they experience the specific features of national life; develop under the influence of the existing national structure, language. Therefore, people of one nationality differ in their way of life, habits, rights, and character from people of another. These typical features are often fixed by everyday consciousness in various attitudes and stereotypes. Most people have a formed image of a representative of a particular country: an American, a Scot, an Italian, a Chinese, etc. Being refracted in a peculiar way, typical features inherent in preschool children, adolescents, the elderly, etc. appear in national characteristics. It is not difficult to describe the typical character of a teacher, doctor, military man, at the same time, each typical character has its own individual features. So, in literature there are many images of misers, i.e. people in whose minds a passion for hoarding is sharply expressed (Plyushkin, Gobsek, Miserly Knight, etc.), but each of them is an individual.

Despite stability, the type of character has a certain plasticity. Under the influence of the life circumstances of upbringing, the requirements of society, the type of character changes and develops. It is enough to trace the dynamics of the development of the character of a person who has devoted himself to a pedagogical specialty. Consistently passing through the stages, they professionally accentuate the character. In practice, accentuation is the limiting value, the extreme version of the manifestation of the norm. Character accentuation is characterized by increased vulnerability only to a certain kind of psycho-traumatic influences, addressed to the so-called "place of least resistance" of this type of character, while maintaining resistance to others. This weak link in a person's character manifests itself only in situations that place increased demands on the functioning of this particular link. In all other situations that do not affect the vulnerable points of character, the individual behaves without disruption, without causing trouble either to others or to himself.

Depending on the degree of severity, there are explicit and covert (latent) character accentuations. Explicit, or pronounced, accentuations are classified as the extreme limit of the norm and are distinguished by permanent features of a certain type of character. Hidden accentuation is the usual version of the norm, expressed weakly or not expressed at all. Such accentuations can appear unexpectedly under the influence of situations and traumas that place demands on the place of least resistance, while psychogenic factors of a different kind, even severe ones, not only do not cause mental disorders, but may not even reveal the type of character. Both types of accentuations can pass into each other under the influence of various factors, among which the features of family upbringing, social environment, professional activities, etc. play an important role.

Since character accentuations border on the corresponding types of psychopathic disorders, their typology is based on a detailed classification of such disorders in psychiatry, reflecting, nevertheless, the character traits of a mentally healthy person. Due to the fact that most character accentuations are formed by adolescence and often manifest themselves most clearly in it, it is advisable to consider the classification by accentuation using the example of adolescents. Such a typology, proposed by A.E. Lichko [Lichko A.E. Adolescent psychiatry. L., 1979], includes the following accentuations:

1. Hyperthymic type. Adolescents of this type are distinguished by mobility, sociability, and a tendency to mischief. They always make a lot of noise in the events taking place around them, they love the restless companies of their peers. With good general abilities, they show restlessness, lack of discipline, and study unevenly. Their mood is always good and upbeat. They often have conflicts with adults, parents, teachers. Such teenagers have many different hobbies, but these hobbies, as a rule, are superficial and pass quickly. Adolescents of the hyperthymic type often overestimate their abilities, are too self-confident, strive to show themselves, show off, impress others.

2. Cyclic type. It is characterized by increased irritability and a tendency to apathy. Teenagers of this type prefer to be at home alone instead of being somewhere with their peers. They are hard going through even minor troubles, they react extremely irritably to comments. Their mood periodically changes from elated to depressed (hence the name of this type) with periods of about two to three weeks.

3. Labile type. This type is extremely changeable in mood, and it is often unpredictable. The reasons for an unexpected change in mood can be the most insignificant, for example, someone accidentally dropped an offensive word, someone's unfriendly look. All of them "are capable of sinking into despondency and a gloomy mood in the absence of any serious troubles and failures." A lot in their psychology and behavior depends on the momentary mood of these teenagers. According to this mood, the present and the future for them can be colored either with iridescent or gloomy colors. Such teenagers, when they are in a depressed mood, are in dire need of help and support from those who could improve their mood, who can distract them, cheer them up and entertain them. They well understand and feel the attitude towards them of the people around them.

4. Asthenoneurotic type. This type is characterized by increased suspiciousness and capriciousness, fatigue and irritability. Especially often fatigue manifests itself when performing a difficult mental task.

5. sensitive type. He is characterized by increased sensitivity to everything: to what pleases, and to what upsets or frightens. These teenagers do not like big companies, too gambling, mobile and mischievous games. They are usually shy and timid in front of strangers and therefore often give the impression of isolation. They are open and sociable only with those who are familiar to them; they prefer communication with children and adults to communication with peers. They are distinguished by obedience and show great affection for their parents. In adolescence, such adolescents may have difficulty adapting to the circle of peers, as well as an "inferiority complex". At the same time, a sense of duty is formed quite early in these same adolescents, and high moral demands are made on themselves and on those around them. What they lack in ability, they often make up for in challenging activities and increased diligence. These teenagers are choosy in finding friends and buddies for themselves, find great affection in friendship, adore friends who are older than them.

6. Psychasthenic type. These adolescents are characterized by early intellectual development, a tendency to reflection and reasoning, to introspection and evaluation of the behavior of other people. Such teenagers, however, are often stronger in words than in deeds. They combine self-confidence with indecision, and peremptory judgments with hasty actions taken just at those moments when caution and prudence are required.

7. Schizoid type. Its most essential feature is isolation. These teenagers are not very attracted to their peers, they prefer to be alone, to be in the company of adults. “Spiritual loneliness does not even burden the schizoid teenager who lives in his own world with his unusual interests for children of this age.” Such teenagers often demonstrate outward indifference to other people, lack of interest in them. They poorly understand the state of other people, their experiences, they do not know how to sympathize. Their inner world is often filled with various fantasies, special hobbies. In the outward manifestation of their feelings, they are quite restrained, not always understandable to others, especially to their peers, who, as a rule, do not like them very much.

8. epileptoid type. These teenagers often cry, harass others, especially in early childhood. “Such children,” writes A.E. Lichko, they love to torture animals, ... beat and tease the younger and weak, mock the helpless and unable to fight back. In a children's company, they claim not just leadership, but the role of ruler. Their typical features are cruelty, selfishness, dominance. In the group of children they control, such teenagers establish their rigid, almost terrorist orders, and their personal power in such groups rests mainly on the voluntary obedience of other children or on fear. Under the conditions of a strict disciplinary regime, they often feel at their best, "they know how to please the authorities, achieve certain advantages, seize ... posts that give them ... power, establish dictate over others."

9. hysteroid type. The main feature of this type is egocentrism, a thirst for constant attention to one's person. Adolescents of this type have a tendency to theatricality, posturing, and panache. Such children can hardly endure when their comrade is praised in their presence, when others are given more attention than themselves. “The desire to attract eyes, to listen to admiration and praise becomes an urgent need for them.” Such adolescents are characterized by claims to an exclusive position among their peers, and in order to influence others, to attract their attention, they often act in groups as instigators and ringleaders. At the same time, being unable to act as real leaders and organizers of the case, to gain informal authority for themselves, they often and quickly fail.

10. unstable type. He is sometimes incorrectly characterized as weak-willed, going with the flow. Adolescents of this type show an increased inclination and craving for entertainment, and indiscriminately, as well as for idleness and idleness. They do not have any serious, including professional, interests, they almost do not think about their future at all.

11. Conformal type. This type demonstrates thoughtless, uncritical, and often opportunistic submission to any authorities, to the majority in the group. Such teenagers are usually prone to moralizing and conservatism, and their main life credo is "to be like everyone else." This is a type of opportunist who, for the sake of his own interests, is ready to betray a comrade, to leave him at a difficult moment, but no matter what he does, he will always find an excuse for his act, and often more than one.

To better understand the essence of the marked accentuations, we can consider their literary counterparts. So, Gavroche from the novel "Les Misérables" by V. Hugo has a hyperthymic type; in Sonya Marmeladova from the novel "Crime and Punishment" by F.M. Dostoevsky - emotive; in Shakespeare's Othello - stuck; in Milady from the novel "Three Musketeers" by A. Dumas and Moliere's Tartuffe - hysterical; Dmitry Karamazov has a pronounced excitable (close to psychopathy); in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet - exalted; Sancho Panso from Don Quixote by Cervantes is extroverted. Unlike "pure" types, mixed forms of accentuations are much more common as a result of the simultaneous development of several typical features or as a layering of new character traits on its existing structure.

As a rule, with proper educational work, character accentuations are smoothed out and compensated over time. But in complex psychogenic situations that affect the “weak link” of the character for a long time, accentuations can not only become the basis for acute affective reactions, but also be a condition for the development of psychopathy. The accentuation of character under the influence of adverse conditions can lead to pathological disorders and changes in the behavior of the individual, to psychopathy.

Psychopathy (from the Greek psyche - "soul" and pathos - "disease")- a pathology of character, in which the subject has an almost irreversible severity of properties that prevent his adequate adaptation in the social environment. In contrast to six accentuations, psychopathy, as can be seen from the definition, is permanent, manifests itself in all situations and impedes the social adaptation of the individual. The reactions of a person with sharpened character traits, in comparison with the reactions of a psychopath, are more closely associated with psycho-traumatic factors, while maintaining a certain self-control. So, a cheeky, rude teenager in the family with an accentuated character understands that this cannot be done in front of unfamiliar people. He drinks with peers, however, if drinking is not encouraged in the family, he tries to come home sober. For a psychopath, there are no such restrictions.

Since psychopathy develops on the basis of character accentuation, the differences between individual types of psychopathy have names corresponding to accentuations (cycloids, schizoids, epileptoids, asthenics, etc.). The causes of psychopathy can be divided into two large groups: 1) diseases (brain injury, infection, intoxication, psychotrauma, etc.); 2) congenital inferiority of the nervous system caused by heredity factors, birth trauma, etc. Such psychopathy is called constitutional, or true. They already appear in childhood in the form of various violations of the emotional-volitional sphere, although the intellect can be preserved. The study of various forms of psychopathy indicates the absence of clear criteria for pathology. According to P.B. Gannushkin, the difference between psychopathic features and their corresponding “simple human shortcomings” is mostly only quantitative [Gannushkin P.B. Fav. works. M., 1964]. When one talks about the presence of a certain character in someone, they thereby indicate a certain one-sidedness of his mental organization, a certain disharmony of the psyche. As a matter of fact, it is impossible to say about a normal "ideal" person what his character is, since all his behavior is a simple reaction to external influences.

It should also be noted the vagueness and uncertainty of the boundaries between individual psychopathies. The identified forms of psychopathy are for the most part an artificial product of a schematic processing of what is observed in reality. At the same time, the behavior of psychopaths of the same type can be different: one paranoid person can be different: one paranoid person can be a recognized scientist, another mentally ill; an individual may be a beloved and popular poet, or may be an idler of no use to anyone. Here it is necessary to raise the question of the connection between psychopathy and human genius. Based on the fact that in an unsharp form certain psychopathic features are inherent in all “normal” people, it is clear that the sharper the individuality is expressed, the brighter the psychopathic features characteristic of it become. This is probably why among people highly gifted, with a richly developed emotional life and easily excitable fantasy, there is a significant number of undoubted psychopaths. In the prevention of psychopathy, education is the most essential means, but even it often turns out to be helpless in the face of the complete absence of volitional delays in some and the powerful pressure of drives that destroy the personality in others.

Character is not a frozen formation, it is formed throughout a person's life path. Anatomical and physiological inclinations, as has been shown, do not absolutely predetermine the development of one character or another. Recognition of the dependence of character on such factors as appearance, body constitution, date of birth, name, etc., leads to the recognition of the impossibility of changing and educating character in any significant way. However, the whole practice of education refutes the thesis of the constancy of character, such cases are possible only in the case of personality pathology.

Character, despite its versatility, is only one of the sides, but not the whole personality. A person is able to rise above his character, is able to change it. Therefore, when talking about predicting behavior, do not forget that it has a certain probability and cannot be absolute. A person can challenge circumstances and become different (unless, of course, she hides her impotence behind the phrase "That's my character").

The formation of character over time is due, of course, to what it was before. Even with the most abrupt changes in life, the character usually still retains a certain unity in its basic and most general features. But character is not fatally predetermined, although it is determined by the objective circumstances of a person's life path, but these circumstances themselves change under the influence of a person's actions. A person himself is the creator of his character, since the character is formed depending on the worldview, on the beliefs and habits of moral behavior that he develops in himself, on the deeds and actions that he performs, depending on all his conscious activity.

Self-education of character suggests that a person is able to free himself from excessive conceit, can critically look at himself, see his shortcomings. This will allow him to determine the goal of working on himself, i.e. those character traits that he would like to get rid of or, conversely, develop in himself. Probably, in order for the character not to become contradictory, so that new features take root more easily, it is necessary to provide for an organic connection between new and existing features, their harmonious interaction.

More experienced people are of great help in educating character, and here it is important to find an example worthy of emulation. In the East they say: "If there is a student, there will be a teacher." There is a deep meaning here. No teacher can teach someone who does not want to learn. Anyone who wants to learn will always find someone to look up to, with whom to take an example. A person's character is formed in interaction with others. But the one who undertakes to help others must first himself demonstrate an example of purposefulness, activity, organization, perseverance and other character traits that he must form in his pupils. Here we should not forget about the mechanisms of imitation, which primarily apply to negative manifestations of behavior. First mother, father, other family members, then kindergarten teachers, peers, teachers, etc. are potential mentors. However, a real impact on the character is possible only if the educator is a reference for the pupil.

The role model doesn't have to be real. It can be a movie hero or a hero of a literary work, distinguished by deep adherence to principles and exceptional firmness of character, a war hero, an advanced scientist. Living images of persistent, purposeful characters are provided by the centuries-old history of Russia. For example, it suffices to point to M. V. Lomonosov and A. V. Suvorov, whose life is a kind of school of character education.

Of particular importance in the formation of character belongs to the social activity of a person, active participation in which develops a sense of responsibility to the team, contributes to the development of organization, endurance, and a sense of duty. The most effective means of character formation is labor. Strong characters are possessed by people who set themselves great tasks in their work, persistently achieve their solution, overcome all the obstacles that stand in the way of achieving these goals, and exercise systematic control over the implementation of what was planned. Here it is appropriate to recall the words of N. Ostrovsky: “Courage is born in struggle. Courage is brought up day by day, in stubborn resistance to difficulties. A simple and effective way of character formation is physical education and sports, which make people more resilient, courageous. Sport provides an opportunity for competition, where everyone goes to the maximum of their strength, shows what a person is capable of.

In accordance with the developed goals, a person accepts self-commitment. It should be feasible and feasible at the level of optimal difficulty. This obligation can be recorded in the self-education program with an indication of the approximate deadlines for implementation. If it is difficult for a person to formulate such a program himself, then his relatives can come to the rescue, but it is better to turn to a psychologist. Here is the self-education program recommended by renowned psychologist Dale Carnegie in his book How to Win Friends and Influence People [Minsk, 1990].

1. Today I will be happy. This means that I will be guided by the words of Abraham Lincoln, who said that "most people are about as happy as they are determined to be happy." Happiness is within us; it is not the result of external circumstances.

2. Just for today, I will try to adapt to the life that surrounds me, and not try to adapt everything to my desires. I will accept my family, my work, and the circumstances of my life as they are, and try to adapt to them.

3. Today I will take care of my body. I will exercise, take care of my body, eat right, try not to harm my health and not neglect it, so that my body becomes an ideal machine to fulfill my requirements.

4. Today I will try to pay attention to the development of my mind. I'll learn something useful. I will not be mentally lazy. I will read what requires effort, reflection and concentration.

5. It is today that I will engage in moral self-improvement. To do this, I expect to do three things: I will do something useful to someone, so that he does not know about it; I will do at least two things I don't feel like doing, just for exercise.

6. It is today that I will be friendly to everyone. I will try to look my best; If possible, I will wear what suits me best, I will speak in a low voice, behave kindly, be generous with praise, try not to criticize anyone, not to find fault with anyone, and not try to lead or correct anyone.

7. Just today I will try to live only for the present day, I will not strive to solve the problem of my whole life at once. For twelve hours I can do things that would terrify me if I had to do them all my life.

8. It is today that I will outline the program of my affairs. I will write down what I am going to do every hour. I may not be able to follow this program exactly, but I will put it together. This will save me from two evils - haste and indecision.

9. Just today I will spend half an hour in peace and solitude and try to relax.

10. Just today I will not be afraid, especially I will not be afraid to be happy, enjoy beauty, love and believe that those whom I love love me.

One of the positive aspects of this program is the emphasis on the fact that the character is formed not so much in difficult moments of life (although there are such turning points in everyone's life), but in everyday, everyday activities. And here the regime of the day, observance of discipline, adherence to the norms of behavior are essential. Even small acts, if they serve good deed and are performed systematically, bring up positive character traits, ennoble a person.

Do you know what temperament you have? Do not rush to look for a temperament test - first, figure out what each of the 4 types of temperament means. Maybe in the process of reading you will recognize yourself in one of the descriptions even without a test.

A good understanding of temperament types will help you better navigate the actions and inner world of another person. It is especially important, I believe, to know the temperament of your family members. This article was written for this. After all, the pros and cons of each temperament are difficult to change, because temperament is an innate property of the nervous system. But with the question of whether it is possible to change the temperament, we will deal later. And now let's look at 4 types of temperament.

I am Sanguine!

The nervous system of people of this type of temperament is characterized by mobility and balance. These people amaze with their vigor, liveliness, emotional diversity. Sanguine people can be good actors due to their bright facial expressions, loud and fast pace of speech, good self-control, poise. Sanguine is quite efficient, confident in his abilities.

Sanguine does not like to be silent, sociable and even talkative. Thanks to this, as well as an excellent sense of humor, optimism and cheerfulness, they are often the soul of the company. Organizing any event, be sure to invite a sanguine person to it - and you will be fun and at ease. For a sanguine person, it is not a problem to adapt to a new environment, to get used to new people. They themselves strive for frequent changes of impressions.

Sanguine is the engine of progress. He is full of ideas and suggestions for improvement. But to bring them to life ... he will trust others. No, at first a sanguine person can still, under the impression of his idea, engage in its implementation. But soon he will lose his fuse and will be engaged in the implementation of a new idea. Therefore, sanguine people easily implement short-term plans and abandon long-term plans.

The failures of a sanguine person cannot unsettle. After a short frustration, he mobilizes his forces and again goes to the barricades.

Often sanguine people claim leadership, they like to be the center of attention. But because of their disadvantages, it is difficult for them to achieve heights in life.

Serious disadvantages of a sanguine person are: lack of concentration, lack of purposefulness, inconstancy, superficiality, inability to complete what they have begun if they are not interested. This is probably about sanguine people Pushkin wrote: "We all learned little by little, something and somehow."

I am Choleric!

Choleric people are also distinguished by a mobile nervous system, like sanguine people. But at the same time they are unbalanced, unlike the previous type. Cholerics are full of energy, impetuous and impetuous. Constantly ready to run somewhere, to fight for something. They are provocative and courageous, enterprising, confident and decisive. They are happy to take on the work and do not leave it until they complete it. At the same time, they can torture those around them with their energy. They are sometimes exhausted beyond their strength, not knowing how to distribute time and work. In a difficult situation, they gather and work with maximum concentration.

Choleric people can quickly solve problems and overcome difficulties. They grasp information on the fly, remembering everything instantly. They are distinguished by good working capacity, purposeful, go ahead to their goal, therefore, good leaders are made from choleric people.

For all their pluses, choleric people are quick-tempered and unrestrained, sometimes even aggressive. In the absence of spiritual and moral principles, choleric people become tyrants.

In this type of temperament, mood can change dramatically, up to emotional breakdowns. Impatience and straightforwardness, self-confidence and poor self-control interfere with choleric both in the family and at work.

Cholerics do not like monotonous and slow work, they do not like to wait. Everything in their life must be done quickly, events must change each other. Sometimes because of this, they are in an excessive hurry, not waiting for the right moment. They do not like to restrain their feelings and their activity, so slow and monotonous work is not suitable for them.

Cholerics can be distinguished outwardly by the sharpness and rapid pace of movements, impetuousness, excessive emotionality, a fast pace of speech, sometimes inconsistent.

I am Phlegmatic!

Phlegmatic belongs to the inert and balanced type. In appearance, they are usually calm and unperturbed, which can infuriate choleric people. Their speech is quiet, measured, slow, facial expressions are inexpressive. Their patience and poise make them pleasant people in communication. In addition, they are not touchy, and their almost impossible to get rid of.

Phlegmatic people are very hardy, responsible. Often they are purposeful, if only they can overcome their laziness.

Their permanence can be considered as positive trait, as well as negative. They are strongly attached to work, work long and hard. But they can hardly endure a job change, they rarely change it of their own free will. In relationships, they are also constant. But they can endure a hopeless relationship for a long time, from which it is better to leave.

In life, they are hindered by slowness and indecision, inability to adapt to new circumstances, unwillingness to make new acquaintances. In addition, many phlegmatic people are quite conservative.

It is difficult for a business phlegmatic person to understand a talkative sanguine person. He has a completely different view of the world. Phlegmatic people are often quite enterprising, but many ideas disappear due to their indecision and excessive caution. However, they rarely lose, because they notice all the shortcomings in time and carefully think through everything.

Remember the work of Goncharov "Oblomov" from the school curriculum? This is how a phlegmatic person can become such a passive and lethargic person if adverse circumstances are created. A phlegmatic person can equally become a successful director and an excellent lazy person. Can become a good wrestler.

I am Melancholy!

The weakest type of nervous system. When I ask people at seminars who considers themselves a melancholic, there are almost no raised hands. Nobody wants to be melancholic! Everyone thinks that this is the most unfortunate temperament. But for all his weakness, the melancholic is very necessary for our society.

The melancholic is inert and also unbalanced. His nervous system is like a thin string that is ready to sound at any touch.

These people are indecisive and unsure of themselves, timid and lack of initiative, lethargic and fearful. They have a small supply of energy, therefore they quickly get tired, fade away, take offense, communicate with few people, have Bad mood not in control of their emotions.

Melancholic people do not like changing living conditions. Get lost in difficult situations, go into depression. They do not like situations of choice, they get lost in them. They get hung up on bad emotions, they carry grievances in themselves for a long time.

They worry about and without, they are constantly afraid of something. Too worried about their health.
Melancholics can work well if favorable conditions are created for them in a small team.

The biggest advantage of melancholic people is their creative inclinations. With their vulnerability and sensitivity, they definitely need to pour out all their emotions somewhere. But they don't really interact with people. Therefore, their experiences are reflected in creativity, paintings, poems, poetry, sculpture, etc.

Each of 4 types of temperament has its advantages and its disadvantages. It is important to learn to see the temperament of another person, to be condescending to his shortcomings and to focus on virtues.

Temperament (lat. temperamentum - the proper ratio of parts) - a stable association of individual personality traits associated with dynamic, rather than meaningful aspects of activity. Temperament is the basis of character development; in general, from a physiological point of view, temperament is a type of higher nervous activity of a person.

Temperament is a set of properties that characterize the dynamic features of the course of mental processes and human behavior, their strength, speed, occurrence, cessation and change. The properties of temperament can only be conditionally attributed to the number of the personal qualities of a person, they rather constitute his individual characteristics, since they are mainly biologically determined and are innate. Nevertheless, temperament has a significant impact on the formation of a person’s character and behavior, sometimes determines his actions, his personality, therefore it is impossible to completely separate temperament from personality. It acts as a link between the body, personality and cognitive processes.

temperament properties.

The properties of temperament include those distinctive individual features of a person that determine the dynamic aspects of all his activities, characterize the features of the course of mental processes, have a more or less stable character, persist for a long time, manifesting themselves soon after birth (after the central the nervous system takes on specifically human forms). It is believed that the properties of temperament are determined mainly by the properties of the human nervous system, which we considered in the previous chapter of the textbook, discussing the problems of abilities.

Soviet psychophysiologist V.M. Rusalov, relying on a new concept of the properties of the nervous system, proposed on its basis a more modern interpretation of the properties of temperament. Based on the theory of the functional system P.K. Anokhin, which includes four blocks of storage, circulation and processing of information (block of afferent synthesis, programming (decision-making), execution and feedback), Rusalov singled out four properties of temperament associated with them, which are responsible for the breadth or narrowness of afferent synthesis (the degree of tension of the interaction of the body with environment), the ease of switching from one program of behavior to another, the speed of execution of the current program of behavior and the sensitivity to a mismatch between the Real result of an action and its acceptor.

In accordance with this, the traditional psychophysiological assessment of temperament changes and instead of two parameters - activity and sensitivity - it already includes four components: ergicity (endurance), plasticity, speed and emotionality (sensitivity). All these components of temperament, according to V.M. Rusalov, are biologically and genetically determined. Temperament depends on the properties of the nervous system, and they, in turn, are understood as the main characteristics of functional systems that provide integrative, analytical and synthetic activity of the brain, the entire nervous system as a whole.

Temperament is a psychobiological category in the sense that its properties are neither completely innate nor dependent on the environment. They, in the words of the author, represent a "systemic generalization" of the initially genetically specified individual biological properties of a person, which, "included in the most different types activities are gradually transformed and form, regardless of the content of the activity itself, a generalized, qualitatively new, individually stable system of invariant properties.

In accordance with the two main types of human activity - objective activity and communication, each of the distinguished properties of temperament should be considered separately, since it is assumed that they manifest themselves in different ways in activity and communication.

One more circumstance characterizing the connection of temperament with the properties of the nervous system should be paid attention to. The psychological characteristics of temperament are not the properties of the nervous system per se or their combination, but the typical features of the course of mental processes and behavior that these properties generate.

Let us consider these properties in relation to cognitive processes, objective activity and human communication. Relevant properties include activity, productivity, excitability, inhibition, and switchability.

The active side of perception, attention, imagination, memory and thinking, respectively, is the extent to which a person is able to focus, concentrate his attention, imagination, memory and thinking on a particular object or its aspect. The pace is manifested in how fast the corresponding mental processes work. For example, one person remembers, recalls, considers, imagines, thinks about solving a problem faster than another.

The productivity of all these cognitive processes can be assessed by their products, by the results obtained over a certain period of time. Productivity is higher where at the same time it is possible to see, hear, remember, recall, imagine, solve more. Productivity should not be confused with efficiency. A person who has highly productive (in the indicated sense of the word) cognitive processes does not necessarily have an increased working capacity, i.e. the ability to maintain a given pace of work for a long time.

Excitability, inhibition and switchability characterize the speed of occurrence, termination or switching of one or another cognitive process from one object to another, transition from one action to another. For example, some people take longer than others to engage in mental work or switch from thinking about one topic to another. Some people remember or recall information faster than others. It should also be borne in mind here that these differences do not determine the abilities of people.

In relation to objective activity, activity means the strength and amplitude of the movements associated with it. They are instinctively wider in an active person than in a less active person. For example, increased temperamental activity in sports gives rise to wider and stronger movements in an athlete, included in various exercises, than in someone who has this property of temperament weakly expressed. A more active person has a more sweeping handwriting, his letters are taller, and the distance between them is more significant than that of a less active individual. It is more difficult for a person with increased activity to perform weak, thin, small movements, while for a person with reduced activity it is more difficult to perform strong and sweeping movements.

The pace of work in objective activity is determined by the number of operations, actions, movements performed per unit of time. One person prefers to work at a fast pace, the other at a slow pace.

The productivity of actions related to movements depends on the activity and pace of work, if no additional requirements, except for frequency and intensity, are imposed on the corresponding actions.

In human communication, the discussed properties of temperament are manifested in a similar way, only in this case they relate to the verbal and non-verbal interaction of a person with a person. In an individual with increased activity, speech, facial expressions, gestures, pantomime are more pronounced than in a person with reduced activity. More active people tend to have stronger voices. The pace of their speech, as well as the pace of emotionally expressive movements, is quite high.

Significantly different style of communication in strongly and weakly excitable people. The former react faster, get in touch easier, adapt better in communication than the latter. Inhibited individuals stop communication more easily, are less talkative than those whose inhibitory reactions are slow. These latter are often distinguished by the fact that they talk a lot, do not let the interlocutor go and give the impression of annoying. They hardly switch in communication from one topic to another, from one person to another. The “productivity” of their communication, i.e. the ability to communicate and perceive information per unit of time is also greater than that of people of the opposite type - inactive and with a low pace.

Temperament types

I. Kant divided human temperaments (manifestations of temperament can also be seen in higher animals) into two types: temperaments of feeling and temperaments of activity. In general, "only four simple temperaments can be established: sanguine, melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic." Of these four types of temperament, the temperaments of feeling include the sanguine and its opposite, the melancholic. The first is characterized by the fact that during it sensations arise in the nervous system and in the human mind quite quickly and outwardly manifest themselves strongly, but internally they are not deep enough and long-lasting. With a melancholic temperament, the external manifestations of sensations are less vivid, but internally they are quite deep and long-lasting.

• Sanguine temperament activity characterizes a person of a very cheerful disposition. He appears as an optimist, full of hope, a humorist, a joker, a joker. He quickly ignites, but cools down just as quickly, loses interest in "what very recently he was very worried about and attracted to himself. Sanguine promises a lot, but does not always keep his promises. He easily and with pleasure comes into contact with strangers , is a good conversationalist, all people are his friends.He is distinguished by kindness, willingness to help.Intense mental or physical work quickly tires him.
• Melancholic temperament activity, according to Kant, is characteristic of a person of the opposite, mostly gloomy mood. Such a person usually lives a complex and intense inner life, attaches great importance to everything that concerns him, has increased anxiety and a vulnerable soul. Such a person is often restrained and especially controls himself when making promises. He never promises what he is unable to do, he suffers greatly from the fact that he cannot fulfill this promise, even if his fulfillment directly depends little on him.
• choleric temperament activity characterizes a quick-tempered person. They say about such a person that he is too hot, unrestrained. At the same time, such an individual quickly cools down and calms down if they give way to him, go towards him. His movements are jerky, but short.
• Phlegmatic temperament activity refers to a cold-blooded person. It expresses rather a tendency to inactivity than to intense, active work. Such a person slowly comes into a state of excitement, but for a long time. This replaces the slowness of his entry into work.