Functional-semantic type of speech: description, narration, reasoning.

The formation of connected human speech has been going on for many millennia. At later stages, a written form of speech developed. In the modern language, there are three main types of texts: narration, description, reasoning. Texts differ in their functionality, carry a different semantic load, have a certain structure.

their use

Any text is spoken or written for some purpose. This largely depends on its content. For the design of speech, there is a certain set of tools, their use depends on the type of text.

Narration, description, reasoning - texts that are most often used in oral and written speech.

Description text

Text is created for the purpose of indicating that an object belongs to a particular group. For this, as a rule, its characteristic features, functionality, area of ​​use are described.

To give an idea of ​​the subject, in one of the parts of the text its general description is necessarily given. Most often this is done at the beginning or end.
A full description of the subject is impossible without detail. Most important features are described in detail, taking into account the meaning that needs to be conveyed through the text. To the description, one can easily put the questions "what?", "what?". This type of text is easy to illustrate. In this case, one picture is enough, which will show both the general features of an object or phenomenon, and all its important details. The action takes place in a specific place at a specific time period. Of the expressive means of the language, the method of comparison, opposition, analogies is used. Simple and are constructions included in the description text.

Narration. Goals of creating text

The purpose of this text is to describe the event, which shows the relationship of individual facts. The reader should be able to understand the course of development of one or more related stories.

For the most complete understanding of the purpose for which a text of this type is created, it will be useful to consider the chain of narrative - story - message. From this it becomes clear that to narrate is to narrate.

Characteristic features of the text

If the reader, after reading the content of the text, can answer some questions for himself: "what happened", "what happened from the very beginning", "how did the story end", "what was the culminating moment in the development of events". This indicates that he is dealing with such a type of speech as narration.

Here, verbs play a huge role, which can be included in declarative, interrogative, exclamatory sentences.
Narrative story emphasizes the change of events and their logical sequence. Chronology can be traced in texts of this type. Simple and complex basis of texts related to this type.

Narration: an example

As an example, we can take a text from a collection of exercises designed to work with children of primary school age. The story is called "By the Sea".

“There was a strong storm at night. The wind blew fiercely. The whole house shuddered from the storm. The sea waves roared menacingly. By morning, the storm gradually subsided. Natasha and Seryozha went for a walk to the sea. The girl picked up a small helpless crustacean from the sand. The crustacean weakly moved its paws. Natasha threw the poor fellow into the water. He tumbled in the green water and quickly swam away. A fish swam on its side in a coastal puddle. The boy caught it and quickly released it into the sea. Then Seryozha found two helpless snails. They were almost dry and also needed help. On this day, Serezha and Natasha saved many marine inhabitants. "

Russians folk tales can also serve as an example of narrative texts. In their structure, the plot, plot development, climax and denouement of the action are clearly visible. Narrative is found in fiction and non-fiction, as well as in all genres of colloquial style.

Definition of types of speech. Working methods

After the children have read the narrative text, an example of which is given above, they can be asked to determine its topic and main idea. Having collectively discussed the proposed task, it is appropriate to answer the question "what did Seryozha and Natasha do?" Students list all the actions committed by the characters in the story. It will be useful to evaluate the actions of the characters. In addition, you need to ask the children to talk about the events that preceded the actions of the characters. The plot is very important in the text-narrative.

One of the techniques that helps to determine whether a text belongs to one or another type of speech is verbal drawing. To do this, you need to ask the children to determine how many frames of the filmstrip they can make in order to convey the content of the text. Schoolchildren discover that one frame cannot convey the entire sequence of events; a series of pictures is needed. After such work, children easily determine that the given story is a narrative. Children can compose an example of this type of text on their own. At the same time, at a certain stage of training, they can indicate all its essential features.

Reasoning text

This type of speech is designed not only to point out the signs of the subject, but also to explore them. In addition, you need to prove and justify the existence of relationships, which is not at all required by the narrative.

An example of a reasoning text will necessarily contain a thought intended for proof, as well as conclusions, explanations, reasoning, thanks to which the assumption will be proved.

Logic is very important in the text, so you should clearly build a line of reasoning. Everything that does not relate to the proof of the thesis is excluded from the article. The design most often uses simple and complex ones with goals, causes, effects.

Of the questions to the text-reasoning, the most suitable are such as "why?", "why?", "why?"

Watching Speech Types

The general education program in the Russian language should give students knowledge of what a text is, its type. Narratives, reasoning, descriptions are given as examples. But the main thing that needs to be taught to children is the ability to prove that a text belongs to one type or another and independently compose them on a topic given by the teacher.

To master these skills, students must:

• distinguish text from a set of sentences;
• know the structure of the text, its main parts;
• be able to put one of the questions to the content of the work, by which it is easy to determine its belonging to the type of speech;
• be able to evaluate life situation, in which a certain type of speech should be used.

When working on a text, it is easy to notice that there is such a phenomenon as a combination of its various types in one work. Fragments are included in the presentation not in isolation from each other, but in close connection. Therefore, it is very important not only to learn to distinguish types of speech, but also to skillfully combine them with each other.

Graduate elementary school provided that the work on the development of speech was carried out systematically, without special work determines the type of text: narration, description, reasoning. Work on the ability to compose and combine them with each other continues at subsequent stages of training.

A type of speech that usually reports on actions and events that follow each other in time. The way of connecting sentences in the text is usually chain (1-2-3-4 ...) The first sentence contains a topic: an indication of a figure, a natural phenomenon, etc. It may contain the words once, once, etc., denoting the time and place of the event. The forms of perfective verbs are used, denoting actions that replace each other in time. Imperfect singular forms of verbs indicate the duration or repetition of actions. As a means of connecting sentences, words are used first, first of all, first of all, etc., denoting the beginning of the text; then, then, after that, etc., denoting the course of events; finally, in the end, in conclusion, etc., often concluding the text. The narrative can be represented by a series of denominative sentences.

Description

A type of speech in which, with varying degrees of completeness, the signs and properties of various objects or phenomena are indicated. The method of linking sentences in the text is a parallel link (234). The first sentence contains a topic, the next ones indicate a sign, a property of the subject of speech, characterize any detail of the overall picture. The description is most often static, motionless. Imperfect verbs, compound nominal predicates are used. The means of creating integrity and coherence of the text are single-root words and lexical repetition. Predominantly adjectives and nouns with an estimated value are used. Figurative and expressive means are used more often than in other types of texts. The description can be represented by a series of denominative sentences.

reasoning

A type of speech in which a causal relationship of events and phenomena is established. Reasoning requires a logically coherent system of evidence, since its purpose is to convince the addressee of something. A typical reasoning is built according to the scheme: thesis (a position that needs to be proved), arguments (evidence, arguments), conclusion (general result). The sequence of arguments can be expressed by the words first, second, etc., can be indicated by paragraph division. After a thesis formulated by a declarative sentence, there may be questions: why? why? what does it mean? , the transition to part 2 can begin with the following sentences: And that's why ..., This means ..., This can be proved (explained) like this ... References to authoritative people, quotations from their works, proverbs and sayings expressing folk wisdom are used as arguments, facts, events, examples from personal life and the lives of others, intermediate conclusions based on cause-and-effect relationships. When listing arguments, use introductory words with different meanings (of course, of course, perhaps, the most important thing, so, therefore, summing up, etc.) In the second part of the argument, complex sentences with conjunctions are used because, since, because, therefore, due to the fact that, etc. . In the artistic style, the type of speech reasoning is most often found in the internal speech of characters and usually does not contain all three parts of the reasoning scheme.

Types of speech- these are varieties of language depending on what we want to convey in the text: tell, depict or prove something. There are three types of speech: narrative, description, reasoning. As a rule, in pure form types of speech are rare, they are usually combined. So, for example, a narrative may include elements of description, or a description may include elements of reasoning.

Narration
To the texts of the narrative, you can ask the question what happened?
The purpose of narrative texts is to tell about an event, a fact of reality. Narrative texts reflect several episodes, events connected with each other.
Narrative texts are built according to the following scheme: exposition, plot, development of action, climax, denouement. One of the characteristics of storytelling is dynamism. The leading part of speech is a verb, which allows you to convey the dynamics, as well as special words with the meaning of time (first, then, then, in the morning, in the evening, etc.).
The basis of the narrative is the unity of the types of the temporal plan, that is, the verbs must be in the same tense and be of the same type. Narrative is usually used in texts of artistic or colloquial styles.

Description
For description tests, you can ask what (what) subject?
The purpose of description tests is to describe items. An image of an object or a description of a phenomenon is created by listing its features. The description object is static, there are no dynamics in the description.
The compositional scheme of the description text is the following: beginning, main part, ending. At the beginning, as a rule, the subject of the description is called, then the signs of the subject are listed, on the basis of which a complete image of the subject of the description is formed, at the end a conclusion is made - a general assessment of the subject.
Signs of an object are conveyed by adjectives, participles or verbs-predicates. Just like the narrative, the unity of the types of the temporal plan is important in the description. As a rule, simple sentences are used in the description, although often complex sentences are used.
The description is used in texts of any style.

reasoning
To tests of reasoning, you can ask the question why? The purpose of description tests is the assertion or denial of any fact, phenomenon, concept, in addition, reasoning texts reveal cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena.
Reasoning texts are built according to the following scheme: thesis, arguments, conclusion. The thesis is the main idea that is proved in the text, the arguments are the evidence with which the thesis is proved, the conclusion is the result of reflection.
Reasoning texts can be divided into reasoning-proof (why?), reasoning-explanation (what is it?), reasoning-thinking (how to be?). In reasoning, any vocabulary is used; for reasoning, the unity of the species-temporal plan is not important. Reasoning is used in texts of any style.

Types of figurative and expressive means
1. TROPES (based on the lexical meaning of the word)
Epithet - a word that defines an object or phenomenon and emphasizes any of its properties, qualities, signs. Usually, a colorful definition is called an epithet: Your thoughtful nights are transparent dusk (A. S. Pushkin).
Metaphor - a trope in which words and expressions are used in figurative meaning based on analogy, similarity, comparison:
And my tired soul is embraced by darkness and cold (M. Yu. Lermontov).
Comparison - a trope in which one phenomenon or concept is explained by comparing it with another. Usually, comparative unions are used in this case: Anchar, like a formidable sentry, stands alone - in the whole universe (A. S. Pushkin).
Metonymy - Trope, based on the replacement of one word by another, adjacent in meaning. In metonymy, a phenomenon or object is denoted with the help of other words or concepts, while their connections and signs are preserved: The hiss of foamy glasses and punch, a blue flame (A. S. Pushkin).
Synecdoche - one of the types of metonymy, which is based on the transfer of meaning from one object to another on the basis of the quantitative relationship between them: And it was heard before dawn, how the Frenchman rejoiced (meaning the entire French army) (M. Yu. Lermontov).
Hyperbola - a trope based on the excessive exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object or phenomenon: I won’t say a word to anyone for a week, I’m all sitting on a stone by the sea (A. Akhmatova).
Litotes - a trope opposite to hyperbole, an artistic understatement: Your Spitz, lovely Spitz, is no more than a thimble (A. Griboedov).
personification - a trope based on the transfer of the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones: Silent sadness will be consoled, and joy will reflect friskyly (A. S. Pushkin).
Allegory - a trope based on the replacement of an abstract concept or phenomenon with a specific image of an object or phenomenon of reality: medicine - a snake wrapping around a bowl, cunning - a fox, etc.
paraphrase - a trope in which the direct name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by a descriptive expression, which indicates the signs of an object, person, phenomenon not directly named: the king of animals is a lion.
Irony - a technique of ridicule, containing an assessment of what is ridiculed. There is always a double meaning in irony, where the true is not what is directly stated, but what is implied: Count Khvostov, a poet beloved by heaven, already sang with immortal verses of the misfortune of the Neva banks (A. S. Pushkin).

Stylistic figures
(based on a special syntactic construction of speech)
Rhetorical address - giving the author's intonation solemnity, pathos, irony, etc.: Oh, you haughty descendants ... (M. Yu. Lermontov)
Rhetorical question - such a construction of speech in which the statement is expressed in the form of a question. The rhetorical question does not require an answer, but only enhances the emotionality of the statement: And over the fatherland of enlightened freedom, will a beautiful dawn finally rise? (A. S. Pushkin)
Anaphora - repetition of parts of relatively independent segments, otherwise the anaphora is called monophony: As if you curse the days without a gap, as if the gloomy nights scare you
(A. Apukhtin).

Epiphora - repetition at the end of a phrase, sentence, line, stanza.

Antithesis - a stylistic figure based on the opposition: Both day and hour, both in writing and orally, yes and no for the truth ... (M. Tsvetaeva).
Oxymoron - connection of logically incompatible concepts: a living corpse, dead souls, etc.
gradation - grouping homogeneous members of a sentence in a certain order: according to the principle of increasing or weakening emotional and semantic significance: I do not regret, I do not call, I do not cry (S. Yesenin).
Default - deliberate interruption of speech, counting on the guess of the reader, who must mentally finish the phrase: But listen: if I owe you ... I own a dagger, I was born near the Caucasus (A. S. Pushkin).
Nominative topics (nominative representations) - a word in the nominative case or a phrase with the main word in the nominative case, which is at the beginning of a paragraph or text and in which the topic of further reasoning is declared (the name of the subject is given, which serves as the topic of further reasoning): Letters. Who likes to write them?
Parceling - deliberate splitting of one simple or complex sentence into several separate sentences in order to draw the reader's attention to the selected segment, to give it (the segment) additional meaning: The same experience has to be repeated many times. And with great care.
Syntax parallelism - the same construction of two or more sentences, lines, stanzas, parts of the text:
The stars are shining in the blue sky
Waves crash in the blue sea.
(sentences are built according to the scheme: adverb of place with a definition, subject, predicate)
A cloud is moving across the sky, A barrel is floating on the sea. (A. S. Pushkin) (sentences are built according to the scheme: subject, circumstance, predicate)
Inversion - violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech: The sail of the lonely one in the fog of the blue sea turns white.
(M. Yu. Lermontov) (according to the rules of the Russian language: A lonely sail turns white in the blue fog of the sea.)

Means of communication of sentences in the text
I. Lexical means
1. Lexical repetition - the repetition of a word or the use of a single-root word. For scientific and official texts, the repetition of a word is the main means of communication. Quite often used in the description.
2. Synonymous replacement - replacement of a word in one of the sentences with a synonym or synonymous expression in another. It is usually used where colorfulness of speech, its figurativeness, expressiveness is needed - journalistic, artistic styles.
3. Two sentences can be connected by generic relations: genus as a broader concept, species as a narrower one.
There are many trees in this forest. But first of all, you notice the trunks of your favorite birches.
4. Use of antonyms.
5. The use of words of one thematic group.
There are many Karamazovs in Russian life, but still they do not direct the ship's course. Sailors are important, but even more important for the captain and the sailboat is the tiller and the star, on which the ideal is oriented.

Comments of the teacher on the studied material

Types of speech: description, narration, reasoning

This page has theory, tables and examples on the topic.

Definitions for types of description, narration, reasoning are on another page about types of speech in Russian.

All our statements can be reduced to three general types of speech: description, narration and reasoning.

The main task of the author in the description is to indicate the signs of what is being described. Therefore, to texts of this type, you can ask questions: what is the subject of the description? what does he look like? what are the characteristics of it? how it functions etc.

There are several main types of description: description of an object, animal or person, description of a place, description of the state of the environment and the state of a person.

Here are some examples different types descriptions.

Description of an object, animal or person

1.The color of the autumn honey agaric is yellowish-gray. It can be dirty brown, and darker towards the middle of the cap. The stem is thin, dense, white at the cap, gray at the base, sometimes brown.

2.On the left hand of the seller sits a tiny cheerful fox terrier. He is extremely small and cute. His eyes sparkle fervently, miniature paws are in constant motion. The fox terrier is made of some kind of white matter, the eyes are made of cast glass (according to A. Kuprin).

3.Only one person belonged to our society, not being a military man. He was about thirty-five years old, and for that we revered him as an old man. Experience gave him many advantages over us; besides, his usual sullenness, tough temper and wicked tongue had a strong influence on our young minds. Some mystery surrounded his fate; he seemed Russian, but bore a foreign name. Once he served in the hussars, and even happily; no one knew the reason that prompted him to retire and settle in a poor place, where he lived together both poorly and wastefully: he always walked, in a worn black frock coat, and kept an open table for all the officers of our regiment (A. Pushkin).

Location Description

The village of Manilovka could lure a few with its location. The manor's house stood alone in the south, that is, on a hill, open to all the winds that it might take a fancy to blow; the slope of the mountain on which he stood was dressed in trimmed turf. Two or three flowerbeds with lilac and yellow acacia bushes were scattered on it in the English style; in some places five or six birches in small clumps raised their small-leaved thin tops (N. Gogol).

Description of the state (environment or person)

1.A grey, tearful morning stands in the yard. Raindrops drum on the windows. The wind cries in the pipes and howls like a dog that has lost its owner (according to A. Chekhov).

2.Despair took over me. Anger at himself twisted his chest tighter and tighter. Hatred for the accursed, soul-exhausting silence was mixed with anger at oneself (A. Gaidar).

The main task of the author in narration is to report on the sequence of actions or events. Therefore, the following questions can be asked to texts of this type: what is the sequence of actions (events)? what happened first and what happened next?

Here are some examples of storytelling.

1.Carlo entered the closet, sat down on the only chair, and turning the log this way and that, began to cut a doll out of it with a knife. First of all, he cut out the hair on the log, then the forehead, then the eyes ... He made the doll a chin, neck, shoulders, torso, arms ... (according to A. Tolstoy).

2.Pour a glass of oatmeal flakes with three glasses of hot water or milk, bring to a boil. Then add salt and sugar to taste. Cook over low heat while stirring for 15-20 minutes. Then add butter to taste.

Reasoning as a type of speech is fundamentally different from description and narration. Description and narration are used to depict the surrounding reality, while reasoning conveys the sequence of human thoughts. The main task of the author in reasoning is to substantiate this or that put forward position (thesis), to explain the reasons for this or that phenomenon, event, its essence. Therefore, the following questions can be asked to texts of this type: why? what is the reason for this phenomenon? what follows from this? what are the consequences of this phenomenon? what does it mean? The argument usually consists of two parts. One part contains a statement (thesis) that needs to be proved, or a conclusion that follows from the proof. In the other part, the justification of the thesis is given: arguments (arguments, evidence) and examples are given.

The order of reasoning can be represented as follows:

(from thesis to arguments).

(from arguments to conclusion).

We give examples of reasoning.

1.The names of Ruslan's two rivals - Rogday and Farlaf - are by no means an artistic fantasy of the young Pushkin. Their author took, probably, from Karamzin's multi-volume History of the Russian State. Karamzin, describing the heroic feasts of Prince Vladimir, speaks of the famous Rakhdai, who, fighting, "expanded the boundaries of the state in the west." As for Farlaf, Karamzin mentions this name when describing the reign of Prophetic Oleg. Farlaf was one of the boyars of this prince.

2.The name Gvidon ("The Tale of Tsar Saltan") is clearly not of Russian origin. In its sound, the Italian name Guido is guessed. A foreign origin can also be seen in the name of King Dadon (“The Tale of the Golden Cockerel”). Everything will become clear when we turn to the famous chivalric novel about the exploits of the knight BOVO D "ANTON, in which both the "glorious King Gvidon" and "King Dadon" act, because it was from there, apparently, that Pushkin took these names.

Let's summarize the difference in speech types in the following table.

	The main task of the author using this type of speech	The main questions characteristic of this type of speech
Description	Indicate the signs of the described object, person, place, state.	What is the subject of the description? What does he look like? What are the characteristics for him?
Narration	Report a sequence of actions or events.	What is the sequence of actions (events)? What happened first and what happened next?
reasoning	Substantiate this or that put forward position (thesis), explain the essence, causes of this or that phenomenon, event.	Why? What is the reason for this phenomenon? What follows from this? What are the consequences of this phenomenon? What does it mean?

In speech practice different types speeches are often combined with each other, and in this case they are described, noting the leading type of speech and elements of other types of speech (for example, "reasoning with elements of description").

TOPIC 4. Description, narration, reasoning as functional and semantic types of professional speech.

Functional-semantic types of speech

Name			Structure	Language organization
Description "What? Who? Which"	To give an idea of ​​the properties and characteristics of k.-l. phenomena	Enumeration simultaneous or permanent signs of objects, phenomena, actions, as well as their characteristics	1. "Given" (name of the object and its parts). 2. "New" (signs). Most often, O. begins with a general thesis, an impression, then the signs of parts of an object, a phenomenon are called, and ends with an assessment	Nouns(name of the object, phenomenon and its parts); adjectives characterizing the features of an object, phenomenon, etc.; figurative words, comparisons(as if, as if, like ...), semantic series verbs one temporary plan with the meaning of simultaneity of actions, static signs in combination with nominal parts of speech, quality adverbs and modal predicative words.
Narration "What happened and how?"	Report on developing, changing actions, phenomena, events, etc.	A story about the development of the described events in certain spatial and temporal conditions	1. Tie. 2. Development of action. 3. Climax. 4. Decoupling.	Verbs movement and perception words that answer the questions "How? When?"(once, suddenly, then, finally, etc.)
reasoning "Why? Why?"	Explain to.-l. position, prove k.-l. thought	Message in the form of reasoning proper, evidence (refutation and confirmation), justification, explanation based on the establishment of links and relationships (causal, clarifying, etc.) between the phenomena of reality	2. Argument.	The words(why, because, since, so, firstly, for example); suggestions with cause-and-effect relationships, etc.

Speech is heterogeneous in its composition, since in the process of thinking a person tends to reflect various objectively existing connections between the phenomena of reality, between objects, events, individual judgments, which, in turn, finds expression in various functional and semantic types of speech: description, narration, reasoning (thinking). Monological types of speech are built on the basis of reflecting mental diachronic, synchronic, cause-and-effect processes.

Narration is a dynamic functional-semantic type of speech that expresses a message about actions or states developing in a temporal sequence and has specific linguistic means. Narrative conveys changing actions or states that unfold over time.

This type of speech, unlike the description, is dynamic, so time plans can constantly change in it. The dynamics of the narrative is created through the use of verbs that can express a quick change of events, the sequence of their development, therefore, verbs of a specific action are most often used.

Can be distinguished specific, generalized and informational narration. Concrete is a narrative about dismembered, chronologically sequential concrete actions of one or more actors, for example in judicial speech; generalized - about specific actions, but characteristic of many situations, typical for a certain situation, for example, in a scientific presentation; informational - a message about any actions or states without their specification and detailed chronological sequence; it most often takes the form of a retelling of the actions of the subject or the form of indirect speech.

The narration in speeches can be built according to the traditional three-part division scheme, i.e. it has its own plot, introducing the essence of the matter and predetermining the movement of the plot, unfolding action, climax and denouement containing an explicit or implicit emotional assessment of the event by the speaker.

Usually isolated deployed and unfoldednarration. An extended narrative is a speech that reflects successive, sometimes simultaneous, but developing actions or states. A non-expanded narration is either expressed by a separate remark in a dialogue, or, when used in a micro-thematic context, serves as an introduction to a description or reasoning.

Description - this is a stating speech, as a rule, giving a static picture, an idea of ​​the nature, composition, structure, properties, qualities of an object by listing both its essential and non-essential features at the moment.

The description can be of two types: static and dynamic. The first gives the object in statics, the signs of the object indicated in speech can denote its temporary or permanent properties, qualities and states. For example, a description of the scene in a judicial speech or a description of an object in a political speech. The description of the second type is less common; Thus, any experience in scientific speech usually appears in development, dynamics.

Descriptions are very diverse both in content and form. They can be, for example, figurative. The speaker, seeking to inform the listeners of the necessary amount of information, gives not only a detailed description of the object, but also its characteristics, assessment, recreating a certain picture, which brings speech closer to the description in fiction.

Description may be extended, detailed and concise, brief; objectified, such as describing experiences in academic speech and subjective in which the speaker expresses his attitude to the object, for example, a description of the situation in political speech.

Reasoning (or reflection) is a type of speech in which objects or phenomena are examined, their internal features are revealed, certain provisions are proved. Reasoning is characterized by special logical relations between its constituent judgments, which form inferences or a chain of inferences on a topic, presented in a logically consistent form. This type of speech has a specific linguistic structure, depending on the logical basis of reasoning and on the meaning of the statement, and is characterized by cause-and-effect relationships. It is associated with the transfer of content-conceptual information.

Can be distinguished proper reasoning- a chain of conclusions on a topic, presented in a logically consistent form, its purpose is to derive new knowledge (most often, the commentary part comes first, then the key, or main, part); proof, the purpose of which is to substantiate the truth or falsity of the statements made (the key part usually precedes the commentary); explanation, the purpose of which is the disclosure, concretization of the stated content, the establishment of the reliability of judgments regarding any obscure case (as a rule, the key part also comes first, then commenting).

A special case of reasoning is common places - abstract reasoning, inspired by the topic of speech, not fixed to a specific situation, which reinforce the argumentation of the main presentation, are used to emotionally strengthen the arguments and provisions. These are discussions on general topics, for example, about honesty and decency, justice and humanity, about treating people, etc. A well-chosen general idea serves as one of the main elements of the composition and a support for specific material; the connection of common places with specific material increases the content orientation of speech. In this way, commonplaces are a kind of reasoning.

For example, in the speech of the lawyer in the case of Lesina, who is accused of complicity in embezzlement, there is such a common place about the work of the court: “The work of the court is often called creative. And they call it correctly, because special, very high and very complex requirements are imposed on the court. their true meaning. To work creatively means to carefully, thoughtfully, avoiding mistakes and hasty conclusions, to restore the real image of the defendant, endowed with all life originality. Some mistakenly believe that human studies are the monopoly of literature. Human studies are the most important science for the court, which no one teaches and which is always studied; this is a science that the court comprehends daily, from case to case. And it will help to understand Eva Mikhailovna Lesina more fully and better"