The formation of connected human speech has been going on for many millennia. At later stages, a written form of speech developed. In the modern language, there are three main types of texts: narration, description, reasoning. Texts differ in their functionality, carry a different semantic load, have a certain structure.
Sometimes language researchers talk about different "text types". As you read the text, you should ask the following questions. By asking these questions, you will deepen your understanding of what is happening in the text. Such reading will also actively prepare you for your own writing.
Errors are erroneous, based on unfounded arguments. They follow from reasoning that is logically incorrect, thus undermining the validity of the argument. Fallacies are difficult to classify because of their diversity in application and structure. In the broadest sense, possible fallacies can be divided into two types: formal fallacies and informal fallacies.
their use
Any text is spoken or written for some purpose. This largely depends on its content. For the design of speech, there is a certain set of tools, their use depends on the type of text.
Narration, description, reasoning - texts that are most often used in oral and written speech.
Let's look at the options that exist in these categories. Formal errors occur when a conclusion does not follow a proposition that is often mentioned or conclusions that have nothing to do with the original statements. In formal fallacies, the reasoning pattern seems logical, but always fallacious. A deductive argument often follows a drawing: all dogs have legs. Tiny is a dog.
A call to probability is a statement that requires something to be taken for granted because it is probable or possible.
- It will rain here today.
- Her new friend drives a car.
- Private investigator Jeremy reported that the man with the beard was having lunch with his wife.
- Jeremy's best friend, Ronnie, has a beard.
- So Ronnie has an affair with Jeremy's wife.
- All Dubliners are from Ireland.
- Ronan is not Dublin, so he is not Irish.
Description text
Text is created for the purpose of indicating that an object belongs to a particular group. For this, as a rule, its characteristic features, functionality, area of use are described.
To give an idea of the subject, in one of the parts of the text its general description is necessarily given. Most often this is done at the beginning or end.
A full description of the subject is impossible without detail. Most important signs are described in detail, taking into account the meaning that needs to be conveyed through the text. To the description, one can easily put the questions "what?", "what?". This type of text is easy to illustrate. In this case, one picture is enough, which will show both the general features of an object or phenomenon, and all its important details. The action takes place in a specific place at a specific time period. Of the expressive means of the language, the method of comparison, opposition, analogies is used. Simple and are constructions included in the description text.
Not only are we more likely to encounter them than formal fallacies, their variations are endless. While formal misconceptions are identified by examining a statement or claim, informal misconceptions are identified through supporting evidence.
Subcategories of informal errors
In these cases, the claim or claim is not supported with sufficient grounds for acceptance. A strong inductive argument follows this pattern: the sun did not explode for its entire existence. Therefore: the sun will not explode tomorrow. There are so many varieties of informal errors that can be broken down into subcategories. Let's take a look at some of these subcategories.
Narration. Goals of creating text
The purpose of this text is to describe the event, which shows the relationship of individual facts. The reader should be able to understand the course of development of one or more related stories.
For the most complete understanding of the purpose for which a text of this type is created, it will be useful to consider the chain of narrative - story - message. From this it becomes clear that to narrate is to narrate.
The presumption of truth without evidence can also lead to fallacious reasoning. Examples of these errors include. Complex issue error. This is due to dubious assumptions.
- "Do you agree that you are wrong?" The answer "Yes" proves that you are wrong.
- In answering the question, you do not agree that you are wrong, but do not agree.
- This question assumes guilt in either case.
- Hospitals are full of sick people.
- That's why hospitals make people sick.
Characteristic features of the text
If the reader, after reading the content of the text, can answer some questions for himself: "what happened", "what happened from the very beginning", "how did the story end", "what was the culminating moment in the development of events". This indicates that he is dealing with such a type of speech as narration.
Running is good way keep fit, so everyone has to run a mile every day.
- If we leave your brother, we leave your whole family.
- You shouldn't have a second piece of the pie.
- It's so fattening.
- Didn't you eat the whole ice cream tub yesterday?
False dilemma. Sometimes called a bifurcation, this type of error occurs when someone presents their arguments in such a way that there are only two possible options. If you do not vote for this candidate, you must be a communist. . Error can also be caused by lack of clarity or misunderstanding of words.
Here, verbs play a huge role, which can be included in declarative, interrogative, exclamatory sentences.
Narrative story emphasizes the change of events and their logical sequence. Chronology can be traced in texts of this type. Simple and complex basis of texts related to this type.
Decomposition errors - these occur when words are used multiple times with different meanings. First Senator: The nation is in debt and we should not add to the defense budget. Senator 2: I can't believe you want to leave a defenseless nation! . These misconceptions try to convince people of irrelevant information, not emotions, but rather emotions.
In this case, instead of focusing on the merits of the argument, the disputant will attempt to attach their argument to the person's authority in order to trust their arguments. Well, Isaac Newton believed in alchemy, do you think you know more than Isaac Newton? Appeal to popular opinion. This type of conversion is when someone claims that an idea or belief is true simply because that is what most people believe.
Narration: an example
As an example, we can take a text from a collection of exercises designed to work with children of primary school age. The story is called "By the Sea".
“There was a strong storm at night. The wind blew fiercely. The whole house shuddered from the storm. The sea waves roared menacingly. By morning, the storm gradually subsided. Natasha and Seryozha went for a walk to the sea. The girl picked up a small helpless crustacean from the sand. The crustacean weakly moved its paws. Natasha threw the poor fellow into the water. He tumbled in the green water and quickly swam away. A fish swam on its side in a coastal puddle. The boy caught it and quickly released it into the sea. Then Seryozha found two helpless snails. They were almost dry and also needed help. On this day, Serezha and Natasha saved many marine inhabitants. "
A lot of people bought this album, so it must be good. . Attack on a person. More people are turning to meditation and mindfulness to help them deal with the stress of modern life.
- Don't listen to Eddie's arguments about education.
- He didn't even finish high school.
- So meditation can make us calmer.
As such, it will likely land the tails the next time it is thrown. This coin landed nine times in a row. . Genetic fallacy - This involves accepting or rejecting concepts based on their source rather than their merits.
Russians folk tales can also serve as an example of narrative texts. In their structure, the plot, plot development, climax and denouement of the action are clearly visible. Narrative is found in fiction and non-fiction, as well as in all genres of colloquial style.
Definition of types of speech. Working methods
After the children have read the narrative text, an example of which is given above, they can be asked to determine its topic and main idea. Having collectively discussed the proposed task, it is appropriate to answer the question "what did Seryozha and Natasha do?" Students list all the actions committed by the characters in the story. It will be useful to evaluate the actions of the characters. In addition, you need to ask the children to talk about the events that preceded the actions of the characters. The plot is very important in the text-narrative.
Weak analogy. These misconceptions use an analogy between things that are not actually the same. Cars kill people like weapons, but if you're not going to ban the sale of cars, you can't ban the sale of guns. In argument or debate bad reasons wrong. How often do you hear people compare two unrelated things while making judgments? We sometimes make judgments about the character of others based on their material possessions or the friends they have when the person has nothing to do with the other.
When you do business in a research paper or essay, it's easy to get caught up in the trappings of power fallacies. Examples, statistics, and testimonies are all important measures to support evidence in academic work. We just have to do what we do correct conclusions from an authority figure to the case we are developing.
One of the techniques that helps to determine whether a text belongs to one or another type of speech is verbal drawing. To do this, you need to ask the children to determine how many frames of the filmstrip they can make in order to convey the content of the text. Schoolchildren discover that one frame cannot convey the entire sequence of events; a series of pictures is needed. After such work, children easily determine that the given story is a narrative. Children can compose an example of this type of text on their own. At the same time, at a certain stage of training, they can indicate all its essential features.
There are many appeals to authority in advertising. Celebrity endorsements are popular for a reason. If we decide that we like the lifestyle of a certain celebrity, then we are more likely to buy a sports drink, jewelry, or the organic food they pump. It's an easy mistake to fall victim to. Maybe if we buy this item to be advertised, we can look more like our favorite celebrity. Your best bet, however, is to purchase a product based on its proven benefits, not on celebrities getting it.
Reasoning text
This type of speech is designed not only to point out the signs of the subject, but also to explore them. In addition, you need to prove and justify the existence of relationships, which is not at all required by the narrative.
An example of a reasoning text will necessarily contain a thought intended for proof, as well as conclusions, explanations, reasoning, thanks to which the assumption will be proved.
Political opponents spend hundreds of thousands of dollars on a campaign to undermine their opponent's legitimacy and make them look unconditional. As we can see, there are many different types delusions. Informal fallacies are especially complex because they have layers of subcategories. Now that you know what some of the most common misconceptions are, we hope you can identify these errors in logic right away. Look to dive even deeper into these multi-faceted waters.
Do you have a good example to share?
Foucault represents perhaps the best definition of discourse. He says: "Systems of thought, consisting of ideas, attitudes and courses of action, beliefs and practices, which systematically construct the things and worlds they speak of." It originally has roots in Latin. The term assumes slightly different meanings in different contexts, but in literature discourse means speech or writing usually longer than sentences that deal with a particular subject formally in the form of a letter or speech.
Logic is very important in the text, so you should clearly build a line of reasoning. Everything that does not relate to the proof of the thesis is excluded from the article. The design most often uses simple and complex ones with goals, causes, effects.
Of the questions to the text-reasoning, the most suitable are such as "why?", "why?", "why?"
General classification of discourse
In other words, discourse is the representation of a language in its entirety while performing intellectual inquiry in a particular area or field, i.e. in theological discourse or cultural discourse. Discourse can be divided into four main categories, viz.
The focus of this type of discourse is on awareness of the topic of discussion. Examples of discourse are definitions and comparative analysis of different ideas and beliefs. Narrative is a type of discourse that relies on stories or as a means of communication. Game skills, history, folklore, etc. are examples of discourse.
Watching Speech Types
The general education program in the Russian language should give students knowledge of what a text is, its type. Narratives, reasoning, descriptions are given as examples. But the main thing that needs to be taught to children is the ability to prove that a text belongs to one type or another and independently compose them on a topic given by the teacher.
It has to do with describing something in relation to feelings. Descriptive discourse allows the audience to develop a mental picture of what is being discussed. The descriptive parts of a novel or essay are descriptive examples of discourse. This type of discourse is based on correct logic and, through correct reasoning, attempts to motivate the audience.
It is a type of literary conversation that focuses on expressing feelings, ideas, fantasies, events and places through specific rhymes and rhythms. Poetic discourse uses common words in attractive ways to represent feelings and emotions. The mechanism of poetic discourse involves certain steps, starting from different sources, then entering into a mental process, mental realization, and then finally into a finished product as poetry.
To master these skills, students must:
- distinguish text from a set of sentences;
- know the structure of the text, its main parts;
- be able to put one of the questions to the content of the work, by which it is easy to determine its belonging to the type of speech;
- be able to evaluate life situation, in which a certain type of speech should be used.
When working on a text, it is easy to notice that there is such a phenomenon as a combination of its various types in one work. Fragments are included in the presentation not in isolation from each other, but in close connection. Therefore, it is very important not only to learn to distinguish types of speech, but also to skillfully combine them with each other.
For so many strange contrasts in one human face. There are thoughts and thoughts, and there is pallor and flowering. Vanity and slowness, pleasure and darkness. Expressive discourse does not involve presenting facts or motivating others, but rather reflects our emotions, which form the basis of our expressions. It is a form of basic or introductory discourse and is useful for those new to literature or other fields. First of all, this concerns the generation of ideas without a specific source. Examples are academic essays and diaries.
After that we went to Westminster and dined with Mr. Dalton in his office where we had one wonderful court dish, but our papers were not done, we could not stop our business until Monday. The main purpose of this kind of discourse is to convey the message in such a way that it is clearly understood without any confusion. For the reader, everything is clear. Usually this type of discourse is active.
Graduate elementary school provided that the work on the development of speech was carried out systematically, without special work determines the type of text: narration, description, reasoning. Work on the ability to compose and combine them with each other continues at subsequent stages of training.
Types of speech- these are varieties of language depending on what we want to convey in the text: tell, depict or prove something. There are three types of speech: narrative, description, reasoning. As a rule, in pure form types of speech are rare, they are usually combined. So, for example, a narrative may include elements of description, or a description may include elements of reasoning.
Narration
To the texts of the narrative, you can ask the question what happened?
The purpose of narrative texts is to tell about an event, a fact of reality. Narrative texts reflect several episodes, events connected with each other.
Narrative texts are built according to the following scheme: exposition, plot, development of action, climax, denouement. One of the characteristics of storytelling is dynamism. The leading part of speech is a verb, which allows you to convey the dynamics, as well as special words with the meaning of time (first, then, then, in the morning, in the evening, etc.).
The basis of the narrative is the unity of the types of the temporal plan, that is, the verbs must be in the same tense and be of the same type. Narrative is usually used in texts of artistic or colloquial styles.
Description
For description tests, you can ask what (what) subject?
The purpose of description tests is to describe items. An image of an object or a description of a phenomenon is created by listing its features. The description object is static, there are no dynamics in the description.
The compositional scheme of the description text is the following: beginning, main part, ending. At the beginning, as a rule, the subject of the description is called, then the signs of the subject are listed, on the basis of which a complete image of the subject of the description is formed, at the end a conclusion is made - a general assessment of the subject.
Signs of an object are conveyed by adjectives, participles or verbs-predicates. Just like the narrative, the unity of the types of the temporal plan is important in the description. As a rule, simple sentences are used in the description, although often complex sentences are used.
The description is used in texts of any style.
reasoning
To tests of reasoning, you can ask the question why? The purpose of description tests is the assertion or denial of any fact, phenomenon, concept, in addition, reasoning texts reveal cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena.
Reasoning texts are built according to the following scheme: thesis, arguments, conclusion. The thesis is the main idea that is proved in the text, the arguments are the evidence with which the thesis is proved, the conclusion is the result of reflection.
Reasoning texts can be divided into reasoning-proof (why?), reasoning-explanation (what is it?), reasoning-thinking (how to be?). In reasoning, any vocabulary is used; for reasoning, the unity of the species-temporal plan is not important. Reasoning is used in texts of any style.
Types of figurative and expressive means
1. TROPES (based on the lexical meaning of the word)
Epithet
- a word that defines an object or phenomenon and emphasizes any of its properties, qualities, signs. Usually, a colorful definition is called an epithet: Your thoughtful nights are transparent dusk (A. S. Pushkin).
Metaphor
- a trope in which words and expressions are used in figurative meaning based on analogy, similarity, comparison:
And my tired soul is embraced by darkness and cold (M. Yu. Lermontov).
Comparison
- a trope in which one phenomenon or concept is explained by comparing it with another. Usually, comparative unions are used in this case: Anchar, like a formidable sentry, stands alone - in the whole universe (A. S. Pushkin).
Metonymy
- Trope, based on the replacement of one word by another, adjacent in meaning. In metonymy, a phenomenon or object is denoted with the help of other words or concepts, while their connections and signs are preserved: The hiss of foamy glasses and punch, a blue flame (A. S. Pushkin).
Synecdoche
- one of the types of metonymy, which is based on the transfer of meaning from one object to another on the basis of the quantitative relationship between them: And it was heard before dawn, how the Frenchman rejoiced (meaning the entire French army) (M. Yu. Lermontov).
Hyperbola
- a trope based on the excessive exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object or phenomenon: I won’t say a word to anyone for a week, I’m all sitting on a stone by the sea (A. Akhmatova).
Litotes
- a trope opposite to hyperbole, an artistic understatement: Your Spitz, lovely Spitz, is no more than a thimble (A. Griboyedov).
personification
- a trope based on the transfer of the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones: Silent sadness will be consoled, and joy will reflect friskyly (A. S. Pushkin).
Allegory
- a trope based on the replacement of an abstract concept or phenomenon with a specific image of an object or phenomenon of reality: medicine - a snake wrapping around a bowl, cunning - a fox, etc.
paraphrase
- a trope in which the direct name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by a descriptive expression, which indicates the signs of an object, person, phenomenon not directly named: the king of animals is a lion.
Irony
- a technique of ridicule, containing an assessment of what is ridiculed. There is always a double meaning in irony, where the true is not what is directly stated, but what is implied: Count Khvostov, a poet beloved by heaven, already sang with immortal verses of the misfortune of the Neva banks (A. S. Pushkin).
Stylistic figures
(based on a special syntactic construction of speech)
Rhetorical address
- giving the author's intonation solemnity, pathos, irony, etc.: Oh, you haughty descendants ... (M. Yu. Lermontov)
Rhetorical question
- such a construction of speech in which the statement is expressed in the form of a question. The rhetorical question does not require an answer, but only enhances the emotionality of the statement: And over the fatherland of enlightened freedom, will a beautiful dawn finally rise? (A. S. Pushkin)
Anaphora
- repetition of parts of relatively independent segments, otherwise the anaphora is called monophony: As if you curse the days without a gap, as if the gloomy nights scare you
(A. Apukhtin).
Epiphora - repetition at the end of a phrase, sentence, line, stanza.
Antithesis
- a stylistic figure based on the opposition: Both day and hour, both in writing and orally, yes and no for the truth ... (M. Tsvetaeva).
Oxymoron
- connection of logically incompatible concepts: a living corpse, dead souls, etc.
gradation
- grouping homogeneous members of a sentence in a certain order: according to the principle of increasing or weakening emotional and semantic significance: I do not regret, I do not call, I do not cry (S. Yesenin).
Default
- deliberate interruption of speech, counting on the guess of the reader, who must mentally finish the phrase: But listen: if I owe you ... I own a dagger, I was born near the Caucasus (A. S. Pushkin).
Nominative topics (nominative representations) - a word in the nominative case or a phrase with the main word in the nominative case, which is at the beginning of a paragraph or text and in which the topic of further reasoning is declared (the name of the subject is given, which serves as the topic of further reasoning): Letters. Who likes to write them?
Parceling
- deliberate splitting of one simple or complex sentence into several separate sentences in order to draw the reader's attention to the selected segment, to give it (the segment) additional meaning: The same experience has to be repeated many times. And with great care.
Syntax parallelism
- the same construction of two or more sentences, lines, stanzas, parts of the text:
The stars are shining in the blue sky
Waves crash in the blue sea.
(sentences are built according to the scheme: adverb of place with a definition, subject, predicate)
A cloud is moving across the sky, A barrel is floating on the sea. (A. S. Pushkin) (sentences are built according to the scheme: subject, circumstance, predicate)
Inversion
- violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech: The sail of the lonely one in the fog of the blue sea turns white.
(M. Yu. Lermontov) (according to the rules of the Russian language: A lonely sail turns white in the blue fog of the sea.)
Means of communication of sentences in the text
I. Lexical means
1. Lexical repetition - the repetition of a word or the use of a single-root word. For scientific and official texts, the repetition of a word is the main means of communication. Quite often used in the description.
2. Synonymous replacement - replacement of a word in one of the sentences with a synonym or synonymous expression in another. It is usually used where colorfulness of speech, its figurativeness, expressiveness is needed - journalistic, artistic styles.
3. Two sentences can be connected by generic relations: genus as a broader concept, species as a narrower one.
There are many trees in this forest. But first of all, you notice the trunks of your favorite birches.
4. Use of antonyms.
5. The use of words of one thematic group.
There are many Karamazovs in Russian life, but still they do not direct the ship's course. Sailors are important, but even more important for the captain and the sailboat is the tiller and the star, on which the ideal is oriented.
