In this work we will try to partially illuminate one of the psychological approaches to understanding childhood - psychoanalytic. As you know, psychoanalysis was created by Sigmund Freud at the beginning of our century. Beginning with his teachings in psychological science, awareness began of the importance of childhood for a person’s entire life and the study, systematization and discussion of this period of human life. Subsequently, a variety of psychological theories of childhood arose, some of which are largely or completely opposed to the psychoanalytic one, but almost everyone recognizes its significance. For example, L. S. Vygotsky in his works (see “Problems of the development of the HMF,” Chapter 1) largely disagrees with Freud’s theory, however, he notices its significance.
Below we look at three authors belonging to the psychoanalytic school who have contributed to the understanding of childhood problems in psychology. This would be, first of all, Sigmund Freud himself - in his theory and practice, he, as a rule, did not deal with children, but his entire theory of neuroses stems from childhood experiences, which determines the saturation of his works with information about his views on childhood. The second author, who is presented below, is Anna Freud, daughter of Sigmund. Her theory is interesting to us because she, in fact, was the founder of child psychoanalysis. Finally, Erik Erikson's theory will conclude our brief review. American psychoanalyst who created his own epigenetic theory of human development. This psychoanalyst has already moved quite far in many of his positions from orthodox psychoanalysis: however, at the same time, unlike, for example, Fromm, he remained within its framework. It is all the more interesting to consider his theory, and thus understand the development of psychoanalysis. So, let's move on to specific material.
Classic psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud.
Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, was one of the first psychologists to pay attention to the problem of studying childhood. Psychoanalysis initially developed as a method of treatment - a purely practical direction, but it soon became a rich source of psychological facts. In particular, it was impossible not to notice the enormous role of childhood, childhood experiences in the entire subsequent life of a person. Further research and theoretical developments led Freud to the conclusion that these childhood experiences were sexually tinged and that these experiences had an unconscious influence on the behavior and life of an adult. Unconscious experience, according to Freud, is the content of one of the three components of the human personality - the unconscious or “It”. The other two components are the “I” and the “Super-Ego”. “It” is the irrational principle in a person, subject to the principle of pleasure, the “Super-I” limits the drives of the unconscious, being the bearer of moral norms, and the “I” follows the principle of reality and helps the subject act adequately to the external situation. As you can see, the content of “It” and “Super-Ego” is filled in childhood - “It”, as stated above, represents unconscious drives determined by childhood experiences, and “Super-Ego” is the parental principle, censor, critic, teacher, and the idea of norms, prohibitions, taboos is also laid down in childhood.
Another important point in Freud's theory is his idea of libidinal energy - the driving force of the instinctive principle in man. This, in his opinion, is a force that largely determines human behavior. Human development in his theory comes down to the stages of movement and transformation of this energy. In accordance with the movement of libidinal energy through erogenous zones (in Freud's understanding, erogenous eons are those that are sensitive to stimulus). Here is a brief description of these stages of development of childhood sexuality:
1. Oral stage (0-1 year). The main erogenous zone is the oral region associated with feeding. Freud distinguished 2 substages in this stage - early and late. The child's sexual expression in the early substage is sucking, and in the later stage it is supplemented by biting. At this stage, the basic, deepest instincts of “It”, “I”, initially absent from the child, are consolidated, only in the second half of the child’s life begins to stand out from the “It”. The “Super-I” instance is still absent at this stage.
2. Anal stage (1-3 years). In the second stage, libidinal energy is concentrated around the anus. Childhood sexuality, according to Freud, is now satisfied through mastery of the processes of excretion. The “I” of the child’s personality at this stage is already fully formed, it begins to control the impulses of the unconscious. Under the influence of such forces as the fear of losing parents, fear of punishment, social coercion, the “Super-I” instance gradually begins to form.
3. Genital stage (3-5 years). According to Freud, this is the highest level of childhood sexuality. The genital organs become the most important erogenous zone at this stage of child development. Sexuality ceases to be autoerotic; children who have moved to this phase of development begin to experience sexual attachment to adults. It is at this stage, as Freud believed, that the Oedipus complex is formed in boys and the Electa complex in girls - their essence lies in the child’s sexual attachment to the parent of the opposite sex and the perception of the second parent as a rival. In normal development, the resolution of this complex, according to Freud, occurs under the influence of castration fear, which forces the boy to renounce sexual attraction to his mother and identify himself with his father. at this stage, the three levels of human personality complete their formation.
4. Latent stage (5-12 years). At this stage, the “I” completely controls the “It,” which causes a decrease in the child’s sexual interest. The energy of libido finds other ways of realization - it is transferred to the development of human experience, communication with peers and adults, etc.
5. Genital stage (12-18 years). The child's sexual interest increases. According to Freud, at this stage a normal teenager strives for one goal - normal sexual communication. If there are difficulties in realizing this goal, regression or fixation at one of the previous stages of development may be observed. At this stage, the “I” must restrain especially aggressive manifestations and impulses of the “It”.
6. When a child becomes an adult (Freud did not identify such a stage, we will allow ourselves this for the convenience of presentation), his character is determined by the development and interaction of three main authorities. With normal development, their normal interaction can be carried out, according to Freud, with the help of the protective mechanism of sublimation. As E. Erikson later wrote (to be discussed later), correct and appropriate sublimation is necessary for the individual to develop normally - this is one of the most important and boldest provisions of Freud’s theory. Pathological development is characterized by the presence of such protective mechanisms as repression, regression, rationalization, etc.
Attempts to organize analytical work with children from the standpoint of traditional psychoanalysis have encountered real difficulties: children do not express interest in studying their past, there is no initiative to contact a psychoanalyst, and the level of verbal development is insufficient to formalize their experiences in
words. At first, psychoanalysts mainly used observations and reports from parents as material for interpreting observations and reports.
Later, psychoanalytic methods were developed aimed specifically at children. Freud's followers in the field of child psychoanalysis, A. Freud and M. Klein, created their own, different versions of child psychotherapy.
A. Freud (1895-1982) adhered to the traditional position for psychoanalysis about the child’s conflict with the social world full of contradictions. Her works “Introduction to Child Psychoanalysis” (1927), “Norm and Pathology in Childhood” (1966), etc. laid the foundations of child psychoanalysis. She emphasized that in order to understand the causes of difficulties in behavior, a psychologist must strive to penetrate not only into the unconscious layers of the child’s psyche, but also to obtain the most detailed knowledge about all three components of the personality (I, Id, Super-Ego), about their relationships with the outside world , about the mechanisms of psychological defense and their role in personality development2.
A. Freud believed that in the psychoanalysis of children, firstly, it is possible and necessary to use analytical methods common to adults on speech material: hypnosis, free associations, interpretation of dreams, symbols, parapraxia (slip of the tongue, forgetting), analysis of resistance and transference. Secondly, she also pointed out the uniqueness of the technique for analyzing children. The difficulties of using the method of free association, especially in young children, can be partially overcome by analyzing dreams, daydreams, daydreams, games and drawings, which will reveal the tendencies of the unconscious in an open and accessible form. A. Freud proposed new technical methods to help in the study of the self. One of them is the analysis of the transformations undergone by the child’s affects. In her opinion, the discrepancy between the expected (based on past experience) and demonstrated (instead of grief - a cheerful mood, instead of jealousy - excessive tenderness) emotional reaction of the child indicates that defense mechanisms are working, and thus it becomes possible to penetrate into the child’s self. Rich material on the formation of defense mechanisms at specific phases of child development is presented by the analysis of animal phobias, characteristics of school and family behavior of children. Thus, A. Freud attached importance to children's play, believing that,
fascinated by the game, the child will also become interested in the interpretations offered to him by the analyst regarding defense mechanisms and the unconscious emotions hiding behind them.
A psychoanalyst, according to A. Freud, to be successful in child therapy must have authority with the child, since the child’s Super-Ego is relatively weak and unable to cope with the impulses released as a result of psychotherapy without outside help. Of particular importance is the nature of the child’s communication with an adult: “Whatever we begin to do with a child, whether we teach him arithmetic or geography, whether we educate him or subject him to analysis, we must first of all establish a certain emotional relationship between ourselves and the child. The more difficult the work that lies ahead of us, the stronger this connection should be,” emphasized A. Freud1. When organizing research and correctional work with difficult children (aggressive, anxious), the main efforts should be aimed at forming attachment and developing libido, and not at directly overcoming negative reactions. The influence of adults, which gives the child, on the one hand, hope for love, and on the other hand, makes him fear punishment, allows him to develop over the course of several years his own ability to control his inner instinctual life. Moreover, part of the achievements belongs to the forces of the child’s self, and the rest to the pressure of external forces; the relationship between influences cannot be determined.
When psychoanalyzing a child, A. Freud emphasizes, the external world has a much stronger influence on the mechanism of neurosis than in an adult. The child psychoanalyst must necessarily work to transform the environment. The outside world and its educational influences are a powerful ally of the child’s weak self in the fight against instinctive tendencies.
The English psychoanalyst M. Klein (1882-1960) developed her approach to organizing psychoanalysis at an early age2. The main attention was paid to the child's spontaneous play activity. M. Klein, unlike A. Freud, insisted on the possibility of direct access to the content of the child’s unconscious. She believed that action is more characteristic of a child than speech, and free play is the equivalent of the flow of associations of an adult; stages of the game are analogues of the associative production of an adult.
Psychoanalysis with children, according to Klein, was based primarily on spontaneous children's play, which was helped to manifest itself by specially created conditions1.
The therapist provides the child with a lot of small toys, “a whole world in miniature,” and gives him the opportunity to act freely for an hour.
The most suitable for psychoanalytic play techniques are simple non-mechanical toys: wooden male and female figures of different sizes, animals, houses, hedges, trees, various vehicles, cubes, balls and sets of balls, plasticine, paper, scissors, a soft knife, pencils, crayons , paints, glue and rope. The variety, quantity, and miniature size of toys allow the child to widely express his fantasies and use his existing experience of conflict situations. The simplicity of toys and human figures ensures their easy inclusion in plots, fictional or prompted by the child’s real experience.
The game room should also be equipped very simply, but provide maximum freedom of action. Play therapy requires a table, a few chairs, a small sofa, a few pillows, a washable floor, running water, and a chest of drawers. Each child's play materials are kept separately, locked in a specific drawer. This condition is intended to convince the child that his toys and playing with them will be known only to himself and the psychoanalyst.
Observation of the child’s various reactions, the “flow of children’s play” (and especially manifestations of aggressiveness or compassion) becomes the main method of studying the structure of the child’s experiences. The undisturbed flow of the game corresponds to the free flow of associations; interruptions and inhibitions in games are equivalent to interruptions in free association. A break in play is seen as a defensive action on the part of the ego, comparable to resistance in free association. The game can manifest a variety of emotional states: feelings of frustration and rejection, jealousy of family members and accompanying aggressiveness, feelings of love or hatred for the newborn, the pleasure of playing with a friend, confrontation with parents, feelings of anxiety, guilt and the desire to correct the situation.
Prior knowledge of the child's developmental history and presenting symptoms and impairments assists the therapist in interpreting the meaning of children's play. As a rule, the psychoanalyst tries to explain to the child the unconscious roots of his play, for which he has to use great ingenuity to help the child realize which of the real members of his family are represented by the figures used in the game. At the same time, the psychoanalyst does not insist that the interpretation accurately reflects the experienced psychic reality; it is rather a metaphorical explanation or an interpretative proposal put forward for testing.
The child begins to understand that there is something unknown ("unconscious") in his own head and that the analyst is also participating in his game. M. Klein provides a detailed description of the details of psychoanalytic gaming techniques using specific examples.
Thus, at the request of her parents, M. Klein conducted psychotherapeutic treatment of a seven-year-old girl with normal intelligence, but with a negative attitude towards school and academic failure, with some neurotic disorders and poor contact with her mother. The girl did not want to draw or actively communicate in the therapist’s office. However, when she was given a set of toys, she began to act out the relationship that had excited her with her classmate. It was they who became the subject of interpretation by the psychoanalyst. Having heard the therapist's interpretation of her game, the girl began to trust him more. Gradually, during further treatment, her relationship with her mother and her school situation improved.
Sometimes the child refuses to accept the therapist's interpretation and may even stop playing and throw away toys when told that his aggression is directed at his father or brother. Such reactions, in turn, also become the subject of interpretation by the psychoanalyst.
Changes in the nature of the child’s play can directly confirm the correctness of the proposed interpretation of the game. For example, a child finds a dirty figurine in a box with toys, which symbolized his younger brother in a previous game, and washes it in a basin from traces of his previous aggressive intentions.
So, penetration into the depths of the unconscious, according to M. Klein, is possible using gaming techniques, through the analysis of the child’s anxiety and defense mechanisms. Regularly expressing interpretations of his behavior to the child patient helps him cope with emerging difficulties and conflicts.
Some psychologists believe that the game itself is healing. So, D.V. Winnicott emphasizes the creative power of free play (play) in comparison with play according to the rules (game)1.
Scientific views
Becoming a direct heir to the scientific views of her father, Anna Freud primarily developed psychoanalytic ideas about the Self, essentially founding a new neo-Freudian direction in psychology - ego psychology. Her main scientific merit is usually considered to be the development of the theory of human defense mechanisms - the mechanisms with the help of which the I neutralizes the influence of the Id. Anna also made significant progress in the study of aggression, but still the most significant contribution to psychology was the creation (this merit belongs to her together with Melanie Klein) of child psychology and child psychoanalysis. She developed methods of working with children, including games, and the principles of psychoanalytic theory were processed by Anna for applied assistance to parents and children in their interaction. Children were Anna Freud's main scientific and life interest; she once even said: “I don't think I'm a good subject for a biography. Probably my whole life can be described in one sentence - I worked with children!” At the end of her life, the scientist, who already had the title of Professor Emeritus at many of the world's largest universities, was attracted to another area related to children - family law, which she studied at Yale University, publishing two works in co-authorship with colleagues (see Selected scientific works). Along with Melanie Klein, he is considered the founder of child psychoanalysis.
Development of Ego Psychology in the Works of Anna Freud
V.V. Starovoitov
Candidate of Philosophy, Senior Researcher at the Institute of Philosophy of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Anna Freud (1895 - 1982) - the youngest child in the Freud family, received a private pedagogical education and worked as a teacher from 1914 to 1920. During the First World War she began to study psychoanalysis. Sigmund Freud personally conducted an educational analysis of his daughter, although until the early 20s it was not a mandatory element of the training of psychoanalysts, which further strengthened her attachment to her father, and also affected her scientific position in psychoanalysis - she forever remained a champion of classical psychoanalysis. .Freud. In 1921, A. Freud was admitted to the Vienna Psychoanalytic Association. Since 1923, she began to engage in child analysis. After emigrating to England in 1938, she was accepted as a member of the British Psychoanalytic Society. In December 1940, together with Dorothy Barlingham, her closest friend and ally, she organized the Hampstead Orphanage, where a psychoanalytic study of children was carried out. Here A. Freud develops child analysis as an independent field of psychoanalysis. In 1952, the Hampstead Clinic and child therapy courses were opened under the direction of A. Freud. She herself was repeatedly elected to the position of vice-president of the IPA.
In the early 1920s, pedagogically oriented psychoanalysis began to develop in Vienna. Hermine Hug-Helmuth (1871 - 1924) was the first analyst in Vienna to begin a systematic study of children. Anna Freud also found herself among the child psychoanalysts. In addition to Vienna, another center of child psychoanalysis in those years was Berlin, where Melanie Klein developed the “play method” for analyzing children, and then the theory of early child analysis. In 1926, M. Klein finally moved to London, where she continued to develop the theory and practice of analyzing children. Over the course of many subsequent years, A. Freud was in an irreconcilable polemic with M. Klein due to acute disagreements on issues of child analysis.
Their first correspondence clash occurred in 1927, after the publication of A. Freud’s book “Introduction to the Technique of Child Analysis,” in which she discusses the possibility of changing the analytical technique when working with children.
Speaking about the specifics of the analysis of children, A. Freud highlights the following points:
1. The child does not have awareness of his illness and the will to recover. The decision to undergo analysis never comes from the little patient, but is made by his parents. Therefore, the analyst requires a preparatory period to evoke in the child the missing readiness and consent to treatment. Because of this, the analyst must first of all establish a certain emotional relationship between himself and the child.
2. However, after this pre-analysis stage, the analyst becomes too clearly defined a person and a poor object for transference.
4. In addition, the parents continue to be the child’s love objects in reality, and not in fantasy, so he does not feel the need to replace the parents with the analyst in his experiences. As a result, the child does not develop a transference neurosis, although some of its components may be present.
5. Due to the above, the child's abnormal reactions continue to play out in the home environment. Therefore, the analyst must be aware of all family relationships. Where, according to A. Freud, circumstances or the attitude of parents exclude the possibility of joint work, the result is the loss of the material to be analyzed. In such cases, A. Freud had to limit himself to the analysis of dreams and daydreams in children.
6. Finally, when working with children, an additional problem arises. Since the child’s super-ego is still very closely connected with those raising him, that is, in most cases with his parents, the assessment of the child’s unconscious instinctive impulses is left to the discretion not of the super-ego, but of his loved ones, who, with their excessive severity, prepared the appearance of neurosis in child. The only way out of this impasse, according to A. Freud, may be for the analyst to occupy the place of the latter’s ego-ideal while working with the child. However, this becomes possible only if for the child the authority of the analyst becomes higher than the authority of the parents.
Child analysts tried to compensate for the child’s lack of free expression of all his thoughts with various technical techniques. In particular, M. Klein replaced the technique of free association with the technique of play, believing that action is more characteristic of a small patient than speech. She considered every play action of a child to be an analogue of free associations in an adult and accompanied it with her own interpretation. A. Freud criticized this assimilation of play actions to the thoughts of an adult and rejected the presence of transference neurosis postulated by M. Klein in a child.
In response to the publication of the book “Introduction to the Technique of Child Analysis,” analysts working under the leadership of M. Klein in London held a symposium at which they sharply criticized A. Freud’s views on the analysis of children. In particular, they believed that transference neurosis did not occur in A. Freud’s work due to the introductory phase of analysis she introduced. They also emphasized the need to use gaming technology due to the less reprehensible nature of play for a child when he cannot produce free associations due to certain fears. In addition, according to the views of M. Klein, the superego, and behind it the Oedipus complex, is formed in a child in the first or second year of life, due to which she rejected the pedagogical approach to analyzing the child, characteristic of A. Freud.
Subsequently, A. Freud made changes to the technique of child psychoanalysis, starting to study everything that could cause repression and other defense mechanisms in the child: fantasies, drawings, emotions - finding in them the equivalent of free associations, which made the preliminary analysis stage unnecessary. At the same time, A. Freud continued to consider the symbolic interpretation of children’s play given by M. Klein as rigid, stereotypical, not taking into account the unknown components of the Ego, which resulted in a distorted idea of the child’s personality. A. Freud herself argued that the path to the child’s Id lies through the development of Ego defenses.
In her second book, “The Ego and Defense Mechanisms” (1936), A. Freud systematized everything that was known at that time about the action of the defense mechanisms used by the Ego. In addition to repression, she included in this list regression, isolation, projection, introjection, transformation into the opposite, sublimation, reactive formation, etc. This systematization significantly expanded the understanding of the protective and synthesizing functions of the Ego, since, according to the views of A. Freud, there is no antithesis between development and protection, since all “defense mechanisms” serve both internal restrictions on drives and external adaptation.
As for the treatment technique, it was built by A. Freud in accordance with the model of intrapsychic conflict, where everything that was not new was described as transference. Based on this understanding of transference, she emphasized its spontaneity. Her point of view completely coincided with the view of Freud, who also believed that the transference is not created by the doctor.
Freud's understanding of the repetition compulsion as a biological attribute of living matter, providing an explanation for the ubiquity of the transference phenomenon, led to an emphasis on the spontaneity of the transference as created solely by the patient, and, consequently, to a model of intrapsychic conflict and the standard technique of single-person psychology. The cornerstones of psychoanalysis—transference and resistance—were built into the foundation of an idealized scientific impartiality. This led to “interpretive fanaticism,” when everything that happened in the analytic situation was seen primarily as a manifestation of transference, which led to a clear inequality between the omnipresent object, the analyst, and the unequal subject, the patient. This inequality grew as a result of the analyst's genetic interpretations, which led to the patient's perception of the analyst as a person who knew everything about his past, including the origin of resistance. At the same time, the judgment of what is true and what is a distortion of the “truth” was left entirely to the discretion of the analyst.
Yet, later, in the 1954 article “Expansion of indications for psychoanalysis,” A. Freud finally raised the question of whether some aggressive reactions of patients, usually considered as transference, could not be caused by a categorical denial of the fact that the analyst and the patient how adults are in real personal relationships. Thus, she came to the idea that not everything in analysis is “transference.”
Preface. Formation and development of child psychoanalysis
The emergence of psychoanalysis was associated with the study and treatment of neurotic diseases in adults. However, the position put forward by S. Freud (1856-1939) that the origins of neurotic disorders are rooted in childhood and are associated with the characteristics of the child’s psychosexual development, necessarily led to the study of childhood neuroses. It is no coincidence that the founder of psychoanalysis paid close attention to the problem of the Oedipus complex, associated with infantile sexuality and which, in his opinion, is the “core of neuroses.” It is no coincidence that the treatment of adult neurotics involved identifying, by means of psychoanalysis, the patients’ memories of various situations, events, experiences that took place in their early childhood and relating to the first years of their life.
Z. Freud worked mainly with adult patients. Nevertheless, he sometimes had to turn to children's cases. A clear example in this regard is his publication “Analysis of a Phobia of a Five-Year-Old Boy” (1909) , which describes the now classic case of “little Hans.” True, the treatment of the five-year-old boy itself was carried out by his father, and S. Freud only supervised this treatment and only once took part in a conversation with the child. However, his published work helped to attract the attention of psychoanalysts to the analysis of childhood neuroses. Thus, the Hungarian psychoanalyst S. Ferenczi (1873-1933), in his work “The Little Cockerel,” described the case of the strange behavior of a little boy, Arpad, who showed an increased interest in chickens, experienced fear of the rooster and expressed excessive love and hatred for birds.
“Analysis of a Phobia of a Five-Year-Old Boy” by S. Freud and “The Little Cockerel” by S. Ferenczi served more as a visual demonstration of the confirmation of psychoanalytic ideas than as a guide to the implementation of psychoanalysis of childhood neuroses. Neither work contained recommendations regarding how and in what ways psychoanalysis could be used in the process of specific therapeutic work with children. On the contrary, they expressed judgments that testified to the technical difficulties of psychoanalysis in treating children and doubts about the possibilities of its direct application to childhood neuroses.
Z. Freud emphasized that it was thanks to the father of “little Hans” that it was possible to induce the child to certain confessions and that only the combination of parental and medical authority in one person, as well as the coincidence of tender feelings and scientific interests, made it possible to use a method that “in such cases in general could hardly be applied." S. Ferenczi noted that in the case of Arpad, “direct psychoanalytic examination turned out to be impossible,” and he had to limit himself to asking the lady interested in this case to take notes, write down sayings and record the strange actions of the child.
Nevertheless, S. Freud believed that in the future, children's psychoanalytic sessions would acquire greater importance than was the case at the initial stage of the development of psychoanalysis. In the work “The Problem of Amateur Analysis” (1926) he wrote about the value of children's psychoanalytic sessions for the development of theory and about the practical interest associated with the discovery that a large number of children go through one of the neurotic phases in their development. At the same time, he emphasized that in the interests of the child, “analytical influence must be combined with educational measures” and that this technique “is still awaiting its development.”
Starting from these ideas, subsequent psychoanalysts began a practical analysis of childhood neuroses, which was reflected, in particular, in the therapeutic activities of A. Freud (1895-1982), M. Klein (1882-1960), D. Winnicott (1896-1971 ) and other analysts. Publications by A. Freud “Introduction to the technique of child psychoanalysis” (1927) , “Childhood in normal and pathological conditions” (1965) , works by M. Klein “Psychoanalysis of Children” (1932) , “Psychoanalytic play technique: its history and significance” (1955) , book by D. Winnicott “The Piggle: A Report on the Psychoanalytic Treatment of a Little Girl” (1977) had a significant influence on the formation and development of child psychoanalysis.
The daughter of the founder of psychoanalysis, Anna Freud, was one of the first who contributed to the formation and development of child psychoanalysis. Being the youngest of S. Freud's six children, she not only was with him all her life, performing the role of personal secretary and caring for her father, who suffered from cancer for sixteen years, but also, having become a psychoanalyst, was actively involved in professional activities, associated with the International Psychoanalytic Movement.
A. Freud did not have a medical education. After graduating from the Lyceum and receiving a pedagogical education in 1914, she worked as a teacher for five years. Without encountering any objections from her father, the young teacher had the opportunity to attend his lectures and attend some meetings of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. Showing an interest in psychoanalytic ideas, she underwent personal analysis with her father between 1918 and 1921. Since 1918, she began to take part in International Psychoanalytic Congresses. Having carried out an independent psychoanalytic study of a fifteen-year-old girl and delivered a report on “Fantasy of beatings in dreams and in reality,” in 1922 A. Freud became a member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society.
In 1920, S. Freud gave his daughter a ring similar to the one worn by the male analysts especially close to him who were part of the “secret committee.” In 1923, A. Freud opened her own psychoanalytic practice, and in 1924 she became a member of the “secret committee,” replacing the closest associate of the founder of psychoanalysis, O. Rank (1884-1939), who, having put forward his own ideas about birth trauma and not finding support among S. Freud's closest circle, resigned from this committee. In 1924, she headed the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute, where she began lecturing on child psychoanalysis. That same year she was analyzed again by her father, and in 1931 she became secretary of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society.
In the summer of 1938, A. Freud left Austria with her father and emigrated to England. After the death of S. Freud, she contributed to the publication of his collected works. During the Second World War, A. Freud provided assistance to children affected by the bombing of London, opened a children's shelter-nursery, and carried out therapeutic and research activities. From 1944 to 1949 she was Secretary General of the International Psychoanalytic Association. In 1947, in Hampstead she organized training courses for specialists in the field of child psychoanalysis, and in 1952 she headed the Hampstead Child Therapy Clinic, which in 1984 was renamed the Anna Freud Center.
A. Freud repeatedly traveled to give lectures in the United States and took an active part in the work of International Psychoanalytic Congresses. She was an honorary doctor of Sheffield (England), Vienna (Austria), Harvard, Columbia, Chicago, Philadelphia (USA) universities. In 1973 she was elected honorary president of the International Psychoanalytic Association. She died in October 1982. At the age of 86 years.
A. Freud is the author of numerous articles and a number of books, including “Introduction to the technique of child psychoanalysis” (1927) , "Introduction to Psychoanalysis for Educators" (1930) , « I and protection mechanisms" (1936) , “Norm and pathology of childhood” (1965) . Her ideological heritage is reflected in the collected works, published in ten volumes.
In her research and therapeutic activities, A. Freud proceeded from the fact that child psychoanalysis requires a special technique, since, unlike an adult, a child is an immature, dependent being, the decision for analysis never comes from himself, he does not feel any violation and most often he has no consciousness that he is sick. Taking these features into account, child psychoanalysis assumes, first of all, a more or less long preparatory period, during which the child is, as it were, “trained” for analysis (awareness of the disease, trust, consent to treatment).
According to A. Freud, an analyst working with children must adhere to the following rules: he should not remain impersonal in relation to the little patient; instead of interpreting the patient's free associations and actions, the analyst should direct his attention to where “neurotic reactions are played out,” that is, to the home environment surrounding the child; the analyst must take into account the fact that the external world has a stronger influence “on the mechanism of infantile neurosis and on the course of analysis” than in the adult patient; when working with a child, the analyst must be able to take the place of his I-ideal, and he should not begin his therapeutic activity until he is sure that he has “finally mastered this mental agency of the child”; the analyst must have authority in an educational sense, that is, analyze and educate, allow and prohibit, “break and bind again.”
Outlining her views on the specifics of child psychoanalysis, A. Freud opposed the position of M. Klein, according to which attempts were made to interpret the behavior of children from the point of view of a psychoanalytic approach to adults, taking into account sexual symbolism in its immediate semantic meaning. Like the founder of psychoanalysis, she was critical of the consideration of children’s play activities, refracted through the prism of a symbolic reflection of real sexual relationships between parents, which was typical for M. Klein.
Unlike A. Freud, who believed that analysis of a child is appropriate only in the case of infantile neurosis, M. Klein adhered to the point of view according to which psychoanalysis is also acceptable for the development of normal children. Using psychoanalytic research and treatment methods, she developed a technique for child psychoanalysis based on play and early object relations. The free play of the child was given the same importance as the free associations of the adult patient. Accordingly, symbolic meanings were seen behind the child’s play actions, which in psychoanalytic interpretation coincided or, in any case, differed little from analytical work with adults. The child’s play-related actions were deciphered and interpreted in terms of the manifestation of his sexual and aggressive desires: the collision of two toys with each other was considered as an expression of observation of intimate relationships between parents; knocking over a toy – as aggressive actions directed against one of the parents. The game analytical technique does not require a preparatory stage for analysis and makes it possible to better understand the object relationships between the child and parents, primarily childhood experiences associated with the mother. Child psychoanalysis should be based, according to M. Klein, on the idea that satisfaction and frustration, libidinal and destructive impulses are formed at the earliest stages of a child’s development, during the first three to four months of his life, when he begins to perceive “good” and “bad” objects (“good” and “bad” mother’s breasts). In the early stages of child development, what can be called “infantile neurosis” manifests itself, characterized by depressive anxiety. The latter, as M. Klein believed, “plays a vital role in the early development of the child, and the norm is the completion of infantile neuroses somewhere around the middle of the first year of life.”
In the second half of the 20s and the beginning of the 40s, there were ideological clashes between A. Freud and M. Klein, due to their different views on child psychoanalysis. These clashes were especially acute in England, where M. Klein moved in 1926, and A. Freud in 1938.
Echoes of these discussions are still preserved among psychoanalysts specializing in the field of psychoanalysis of childhood neurotic diseases. In any case, among modern psychoanalysts there is no consensus on the extent to which children’s play should be trusted in the process of analyzing a child: does his play reflect actual life situations that indicate internal conflicts, or does it show resistance to the expression of conflicts; whether the child's play is a kind of transference or a favorite means of expression; does he find in it a means of “escape into illness” or does the child’s play itself have healing powers.
Currently, some psychoanalysts adhere to the views of A. Freud, others share the ideas of M. Klein, and still others use everything valuable that was in the teachings of these two representatives of child psychoanalysis. This anthology contains materials written by A. Freud, and it reflects, accordingly, one of the positions related to understanding the specifics of child psychoanalysis and its technique. In order to get a more complete picture of possible approaches to considering the mental development of a child, the occurrence of mental disorders in children and methods of their treatment, the reader can refer to the works published in Russian and listed in the list of references. However, it seems to me that familiarization with child psychoanalysis must begin with reading the relevant works of A. Freud. That is why the anthology offered to the reader includes the research of this author as a necessary prerequisite for further mastery of psychoanalytic knowledge in the field of therapy, upbringing and education of children.
Valery Leibin,
full member of the Academy of Pedagogical and Social Sciences,
chief researcher
Institute for System Research RAS
Section I
Psychoanalysis of early childhood
Amnesia of early childhood events and the Oedipus complex
We all know very well that teachers treat psychoanalysis with a certain degree of skepticism and mistrust. But since you, teachers working in Children's day centers, decided to listen to a short course of my lectures, you, apparently, in one way or another came to the conclusion that a closer acquaintance with the new discipline can provide some help in your difficult work. After listening to these four lectures, you will be able to evaluate whether you were wrong in your expectations and whether I managed to meet at least part of your hopes.
In a sense, I have nothing completely new for you. I would not have achieved my goal if I tried to tell you about the behavior of schoolchildren or children attending day centers, since in this regard you are in a more advantageous position. A huge amount of material passes through your hands every day, clearly demonstrating the entire spectrum of phenomena: from children lagging behind in mental and physical development, intimidated, stubborn, deceitful, spoiled by ill-treatment, to cruel, aggressive and prone to committing crimes. I'd rather avoid trying to read out the entire list, since you'll still find a lot of gaps in it.
However, even good familiarity with the whole variety of situations can prevent one from comprehending the true meaning of these phenomena. You, just like school teachers and kindergarten teachers, must constantly act. Life in the classroom requires constant intervention on your part: you must make comments, maintain discipline and order in the classroom, make sure that children do not sit idle, give them advice and instructions. Your administration would be extremely unhappy if it suddenly occurred to you to move to the position of a passive observer. It is so arranged that, due to your professional activity, you get acquainted with countless visible manifestations of children's behavior, but you can neither take in the entire spectrum of these phenomena, nor trace the origins of the child's behavior to which you are forced to react.
You may not be able to properly evaluate and classify the material you have, not so much because you lack unobstructed observation, but because such classification requires special knowledge. Let's imagine for a moment that someone here is particularly interested in finding out why some children in a certain group suffer from visual impairment or rickets. He knows that these children live in squalid, damp houses, but only a doctor can clearly explain how dampness affects the physical condition of the child. Another may have focused his attention on the dangers to which, because of their innate qualities, children of alcoholic parents are exposed; in this case, it is necessary to turn to the study of heredity. Anyone interested in the relationship between unemployment, housing shortages, and child neglect should take up the study of sociology. In the same way, a teacher interested in the psychological determinants of all these phenomena, wishing to understand the differences between them and to trace their gradual development through concrete examples, can turn to psychoanalysis for information.
It seems to me that such enrichment of knowledge can provide you with significant support in your practical activities. There are two reasons for this. Day centers are the newest educational institute in Vienna. It is intended for children who, for one reason or another, are left without parental supervision after school. The idea of creating such centers is a preventive measure, an attempt to prevent the negative consequences that arise as a result of a decrease in care for children. They owe their existence to the belief that the development of challenging and antisocial behavior in the early stages can be relatively easily influenced in the favorable atmosphere of such centers, reminiscent of a school or home environment. Later, when teenagers who have grown up without parental supervision and have committed crimes end up in a correctional institution, this is much more difficult to do, and sometimes simply impossible.
However, at the moment, visiting Day Centers cannot be compulsory. While school attendance is compulsory, whether or not to entrust your child to the care of Center staff is left to the discretion of the parents. For this reason, Day Centers must constantly prove that their existence is not useless, gaining authority in the eyes of every child and parent with their successful work, just as before the decree on compulsory vaccination against smallpox it was necessary to convince parents again and again of the need such a vaccination.
But day center workers point to another difficulty inherent in their situation. In most cases, they have to deal with children who have already passed through the hands of various educators. They note that these children, at least initially, react inappropriately to themselves and their actions. They come with already formed ideas and often express distrust, anxiety or disdain towards the teacher through their behavior. They developed this attitude as a result of previous interactions with adults. In addition, the life of a child in a Day Center is nothing more than an addition to his school life, and the Centers generally master more liberal, humane and modern methods of education than those that prevail in most schools. Thus, the school, by demanding a certain standard of behavior from a child and instilling such a standard in him, often creates obstacles for the Centers in achieving their goals.
So the situation of day center workers is far from enviable. They are constantly faced with difficult tasks that require independent decision-making and intervention; and this is not to mention the fact that they are not the main and most important adults in the child's life.
School teachers may say to this that we are wrong in assessing their situation as the most favorable. They also claim that they often get the baby too late; It is very difficult, for example, in the first grade of elementary school to instill in a child a correct and serious attitude towards learning and towards teachers, if previously he was only familiar with the carefree atmosphere of kindergarten. They bring with them to school a behavior pattern acquired in kindergarten and an attitude that is not acceptable in a school setting.
In accordance with the above, kindergarten workers deal with a group that has not yet been spoiled by their upbringing, and therefore are in a more advantageous position. But even from them, to our amazement, we hear complaints that their three- to six-year-old pupils are already mature individuals. Each child is endowed with character traits unique to him and reacts to the actions of educators in his own way. The teacher associates with each child certain expectations, specific hopes and fears, each of them has his own preferences, each expresses envy and tenderness in his own way, demands love and rejects it. And there can be no talk of the influence of the teacher’s personality on a submissive, not yet formed being. The teacher deals with small personalities, complex and difficult to influence.
Therefore, teachers and educators - in schools, day centers or kindergartens - always find themselves in the same difficult situation. It is obvious that personality formation is completed earlier than we imagined. To identify the origin of those characteristics of the child’s character that cause so much trouble for the teacher, the researcher must turn to the period preceding his entry into educational institutions, to the first adults in the child’s life, that is, to the period up to six years and to his parents.
You may have the feeling that this makes the task easier. Instead of observing the behavior of older children day by day in schools and day centers, we will try to collect information about their impressions and memories of their early years.
At first glance, this is not at all difficult. You have always strived to ensure that relationships with the children entrusted to you are sincere and open. Now this will be very useful. By answering your questions, your child will be ready to tell you everything.
I advise each of you to make such an attempt, but I warn you that you will get meager results. Children don't talk about their past, but they will willingly tell you about the events of the last few days or weeks, about their weekend, about their last birthday, perhaps even about last year's Christmas. But here their memories are cut short, or, in any case, the children lose the ability to talk about them.
You may say that our belief that a child is able to remember his past is unfounded. It should be borne in mind that children cannot distinguish important events from insignificant ones. Therefore, you believe that it would be wiser and more productive to ask our questions not to a child, but to an adult interested in exploring the early experiences of his childhood.
I, of course, recommend that you use this second method as well, but I know that you will be surprised when you find that a friend who sincerely wants to help you has almost nothing to say. His more or less conscious memories, with a few gaps, go back perhaps to the fifth or sixth year of life. He will describe his school years, perhaps even the house where he lived in his third, fourth and fifth years, the names of his brothers and sisters and dates; he may even mention a special event such as moving from one house to another, or some unusual event. The list will be exhausted before you discover what you are looking for, namely, signs of how his five-year development led to the formation of characteristic personality traits.
Of course, this is a suitable reason for new disappointment. The events we want to hear about, which play such an important role in the formation of an individual's character, concern the most intimate experiences in his life. This is the experience that everyone keeps as the most intimate and, not allowing anyone to see it except himself, shyly hides even from his closest friends. Given this circumstance, you should turn for information to the only person who is ready to give it out. In other words, every researcher must study himself. Here the matter concerns ourselves, and we must rely on the ability of a normal adult person to remember the past, on our interest in this information and the desire to overcome all barriers that prevent the individual from revealing his secrets to others.
However, even if we approach this matter with all the interest and attention and are completely frank, the results will still be meager. We will not be able to shed light on the early years of our lives and collect an unbroken chain of memories of that period. We can associate events with certain periods of time, which for different individuals can be completely different. For some, this is the fifth year of life, for some it is the fourth, for others it is the third. However, until this moment, in the consciousness of each of us there is a large gap, darkness, against the background of which only some disordered and incoherent fragments stand out, which, upon closer examination, are devoid of meaning and meaning.
For example, a young man remembers nothing of the first four years of his childhood, except for a short episode on a ship where the captain, in a beautiful uniform, stretches out his arms to lift him over the parapet. A survey of other people showed that during the same period of time he experienced serious upheavals and severe blows of fate. Or again, in the memory of a girl whose early childhood was rich in emotional experiences, among the confusion of events, only one clear memory was preserved: while walking in a stroller, she turns back and looks at the nanny pushing the stroller!
You will, of course, agree that here we are faced with an extremely contradictory set of facts. On the one hand, from our observations of young children and stories from relatives about our childhood, we know that the child’s behavior at this stage of development is meaningful and active; he expresses his attitude to what is happening, in many respects he manifests himself as a rational being. On the other hand, this period was erased from his memory or, at best, left extremely meager memories of itself. According to the testimony of school teachers and kindergarten teachers, after these early childhood years a person enters life as a fully formed personality. But still, memory works as if during this period, when the child is most receptive and sensitive, when the complex development of his personality takes place, nothing worth remembering happened.
Until now, academic psychology has fallen into this trap. As material for their research, scientists took only that part of an individual’s mental life that was known to him, which inevitably led to an underestimation of the significance of the first years of life, which remained unknown to him.
The first attempt to resolve this contradiction was made by psychoanalysis. By examining the nature of the errors that a person makes in his daily life, forgetting and losing things or putting them in the wrong place, reading or hearing the wrong word, psychoanalysis has proven that such errors are not accidental. Previously, such cases were explained, without much thought, as the result of inattention, fatigue, or simply an accident. Psychoanalytic research has shown that, as a rule, we do not forget anything except what we, for one reason or another, would not like to remember, although this reason is usually unknown to us.
Similarly, in exploring gaps in childhood memories, psychoanalysis resorts to unconventional methods of explanation. He argues that such an amazing phenomenon would not have taken place without serious reasons. It was this darkness that envelops the first years of life, and the obstacles that arise in the path of anyone who makes any attempt to dispel it, that led psychoanalysts to believe that something important was hidden here. Likewise, a burglar who stumbles upon a particularly sophisticated lock design comes to the conclusion that the effort he will put into breaking it will be richly rewarded; people wouldn't go to so much trouble to lock up something useless!
But at the moment it is not my intention to explain how psychoanalysis has achieved this goal of restoring childhood memories. The description of the method of psychoanalysis itself will take more time than we have at our disposal. We will leave its more detailed consideration and research for another course of lectures. Now we are mainly interested in the content of the first five years of life, to the extent to which psychoanalysis has been able to restore it. I will only remind you that this restoration was accomplished by interpreting dreams and explaining the origin of mistakes made both by healthy people and by patients suffering from neuroses.
The psychoanalytic reconstruction of childhood memories appeals to the earliest period of infancy, to the period when the child possesses only the hereditary qualities inherent in him from birth - in other words, to the state in which we vainly hoped to find him at the time of admission to an educational institution. What we know about this stage of development is not impressive. Newborn children are similar to young animals in many ways, but in some respects they are at a disadvantage than young animals. The latter depend on their mothers only for a short period of time, a few weeks at most. After this, they turn into independent individuals, capable of doing without outside help. With children the situation is different.
The child is so dependent on his mother for at least a year that he would die the minute the mother stopped caring for him. But even after a year of infancy, independence is still a long way off. The child is not able to obtain food and livelihood, or protect himself from danger. As you know, it takes fifteen years, or even more, to completely free yourself from adult care and become independent.
The fate of a child is inevitably determined by his long-term dependence on an adult, which also distinguishes people from individuals of the animal world. During the first year of life, the mother plays the most important role in the child’s fate, if only because her tender care is his only protection; this feeling remains for the rest of his life. The child feels safe as long as he knows that the mother is nearby, and the child demonstrates his helplessness with anxiety or indignation when the mother leaves him. Without his mother he would not be able to satisfy his hunger; her presence becomes vital to him.
First lecture on psychoanalysis for teachers (1930). The text is based on the edition: Freud A. Theory and practice of child psychoanalysis. T. I. M., 1999. P. 8–22.
The German Hort is translated here as “Children's day center”. Its charter states: “The centers are modeled after kindergartens, but are intended primarily for children from 6 to 14 years of age. While kindergartens only accept children up to 6 years old, that is, preschool age, Hort centers are attended by those children whose parents go to work all day and who would be forced to spend their free time outside of school. Here, at the Hort centers, they prepare lessons, participate in group games, and go for walks.”
leads to a very important and lasting action on the part of the unconscious. We can make the assumption that this complex with its derivatives is the basic complex of every neurosis, and we must be prepared to find it no less valid in other areas of mental life. The myth of Oedipus the King, who kills his father and marries his mother, is a little modified manifestation of infantile desire, against which the idea of incest subsequently arises. At the heart of Shakespeare's creation of Hamlet is the same incest complex, only better hidden.
At the time when the child is in possession of a basic complex that has not yet been repressed, a significant part of his mental interests is devoted to sexual issues. He begins to think about where the children come from, and learns from the signs available to him about the actual facts than the parents think. Typically, interest in issues of childbirth manifests itself as a result of the birth of a brother or sister. This interest depends solely on the fear of material damage, since the child sees only a competitor in the newborn. Under the influence of those partial drives that characterize the child, he creates several infantile sexual theories, in which the same genital organs are attributed to both sexes, conception occurs as a result of food intake, and birth occurs through evacuation through the end of the intestine; The child views copulation as a kind of hostile act, as violence. But it is precisely the incompleteness of his own sexual constitution and the gap in his information, which consists in ignorance of the existence of the female genital canal, that forces the child researcher to stop his unsuccessful work. The very fact of this childhood research, as well as the creation of various theories, leaves its mark on the formation of the child’s character and gives content to his future neurotic illness.
It is absolutely inevitable and quite normal that a child chooses his parents as the object of his first love choice. But his libido should not be fixed on these first objects, but should, taking these first objects as a model, move on to other persons during the final choice of the object. The separation of a child from his parents must be an inevitable task so that the child's social status is not endangered. At a time when repression leads to choice among partial drives, and subsequently, when the influence of parents should decrease, great tasks lie ahead in the work of education. This education, undoubtedly, is not always carried out as it should be at present.
Do not think that with this analysis of the sexual life and psychosexual development of the child we have moved away from psychoanalysis and from the treatment of neurotic disorders. If you want, psychoanalytic treatment can be defined as a continuation of education in the sense of eliminating the remnants of childhood” (Freud 3. On psychoanalysis // Psychology of the unconscious: Collection of works / Compiled by M.G. Yaroshevsky. M., 1990. P. 375).
TASK 2
Look through books and periodicals on psychology in recent years, choose the work of a foreign or domestic psychologist, the author of which is an adherent of the psychoanalytic approach.
- Read, paying attention to the conceptual apparatus.
- Highlight the author's main initial settings.
- What aspects of mental and personal development does the author consider to be the most important?
- Outline those practical problems of mental development, education and upbringing that are proposed to be solved in the context of psychoanalytic theory.
Psychoanalysis 3. FreudMain subject: Personality development
Research methods: Analysis of clinical cases,
free association method, dream analysis,
reservations, etc.
Basic concepts:
Levels of the psyche (consciousness, preconsciousness,
unconscious), personality structure (Id, Ego, Superego), psychological defense, sexual energy
(libido), sexual instinct, life instinct,
death instinct, stages of psychosexual development,
erogenous zones, pleasure principle, principle
reality, Oedipus complex, Electra complex,
identification, conflict, residual behavior,
fixation, genital character
Mental development from the perspective of classical psychoanalysis 3. Freud
The foundations of the psychoanalytic approach to understanding the development of the psyche in ontogenesis were laid by Z. Freud.
Mental development = processcomplications of the sphere of desires,
motives and feelings, development
personality, its complication
structures and functions. three levels of the psyche
consciousness
unconscious
preconscious
The unconscious level of the psyche is the receptacle of the body’s instinctive needs, drives, primarily sexual and aggressive.
Unconscious level of the psyche- receptacle for instinctual needs
body, drives, first of all
sexy and aggressive.
The unconscious initially opposes
to society.
Personality development - adaptation (adjustment)
individual to the external social world,
alien to him, but absolutely necessary. Three structural components of personality
It
I
Super-ego
O n o (Id)
primitive core of personality;it is innate,
is in the unconscious and
obeys the principle
pleasure.
contains congenital
impulsive drives (instinct
life Eros and the death instinct
Thanatos) and makes up
energy basis
mental development.
10. I (Ego)
- rational and in principleconscious part
personality. arises as
biological maturation
between 12 and 36 months
life and is guided
the principle of reality.
The Ego's job is to explain
what's happening and build
human behavior is
to his instinctive
there were requirements
satisfied and
restrictions of society and
there would be no consciousness
violated.
Assisted by the Ego
conflict between an individual
and society throughout life
should weaken.
I (Ego)
11. S u p e r x - I (S u p e r - Ego)
Super-ego(Supper - Ego)
as a structural component
personality is formed last,
between 3 and 6 years of age.
represents conscience, ego-ideal and strictly controls
compliance with the standards adopted in
this society.
12.
The foundation of personality is laidexperiences of early childhood, in
result of conflict between id and superego
13. Periodization of age development 3. Freud – psychosexual theory of personality
Periodization of agedevelopment 3. Freud –
psychosexual
personality theory
"Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality" (1905):
a person is born with a certain amount
sexual energy (libido), which is
strictly defined sequence
moves through different areas of the body (mouth,
anus, genitals)
14. Stages are a kind of steps on the path of development, and there is a danger of “getting stuck” at one stage or another, and then the components of children’s sex
Stages of personal developmentoral
anal
phallic
latent
genital
Stages are their own
kind of steps on the way
development, and there is
danger of getting stuck
on one or another
stage, and then
components for children's
sexuality can
become prerequisites
neurotic
symptoms
later life.
15. Oral stage (from birth to 18 months)
Main sourcepleasure connects
with satisfaction
basic organic
needs and includes
actions related to
breastfeeding:
sucking, biting and
swallowing.
The mother awakens in the child
sexual attraction, teaches
love him. Optimal
degree of satisfaction
(stimulation) in oral
zone (chest
feeding, sucking)
lays the foundations
healthy independent
adult personality.
16.
Too much parental affectionaccelerates puberty and makes
child “spoiled”, dependent.
Insufficient stimulation - adult
will be used as methods
adaptation to the surrounding world demonstration
helplessness, gullibility, will need
constant approval of their actions with
sides.
17.
Fixation in the oral-sadistic phase, withteething when
emphasis shifts to
actions of biting and chewing,
leads to such traits
adult personality, like
love of controversy, cynical consumer attitude towards
to others, pessimism.
Libido attachment
sometimes to the oral area
is also preserved in
adult and makes himself known
know residual
oral behavior - gluttony, smoking,
biting nails,
chewing gum, etc.
18. Anal stage (from 1 - 1.5 to 3 years)
Associated with the emergence of the egoAnal erotica is associated, according to Freud, with pleasant
sensations from intestinal function, from excretory
functions, with an interest in their own feces.
At this stage, parents begin to teach the child
use the toilet, presenting it to him for the first time
the requirement to abandon instinctive
pleasure.
The correct educational approach is important (attention
to the child’s condition, encouragement, support
neatness)
19. Phallic stage (3-6 years)
the child often looks andexamines his genitals,
shows interest in issues
associated with the birth of children and
sexual relations.
20.
Oedipus complexboy
is discovered
desire to "possess"
mother and eliminate
father.
Identifying yourself with
father (imitation
intonations,
statements,
actions,
borrowing norms
rules, settings)
promotes
the emergence of the superego, or conscience,
last component
personality structures.
Electra complex
girls identify themselves with
same-sex parent
- mother and
suppression of gravity
to my father.
Girl zooming in
resemblance to mother
receives
symbolic
"access" to your
to my father.
21. Latent stage (from 6 - 7 years to 12 years)
Sexual lull, beforebeginning of adolescence.
The energy reserve is directed to
non-sexual goals and activities
- study, sports, knowledge,
friendship with peers,
mostly of the same gender.
Freud emphasized
the significance of this break in
sexual development
human as conditions for
higher education
human culture.
22. Genital stage (12-18 years)
Stage due to biological maturation inpuberty and final psychosexual
development.
A surge of sexual and aggressive urges, a complex
Oedipa is reborn on a new level. Autoerotism
disappears and is replaced by interest in another
sexual object, partner of the opposite sex.
Normally, in youth there is a search for a place in society,
choosing a marriage partner, creating a family.
One of the most significant tasks of this stage is
liberation from parental authority, from attachment
to them, which provides the necessary for the cultural process
the contrast between the old and new generations.
23. Freud was convinced that all the most significant things in personality development happen before the age of five, and later a person is only a “functional
Thus, childhood interested 3. Freudas a period that preforms adulthood
personality.
Freud was convinced that everything essential
in personality development occurs before the age of five
age, and later a person is only
“functioning”, trying to overcome early
conflicts, so no special stages
He did not highlight adulthood.
24. VALUE OF PSYCHOANALYTICAL CONCEPT
Valuepsychoanalysticological concepts
This is a dynamic development concept,
it shows a complex range
experiences, unity of soul
human life, its irreducibility to
individual functions and elements.
The importance of childhood, the importance and
longevity of parental
influence
25. The most important aspect of the psychoanalytic approach can be considered the idea of sensitive attention to the child, the desire to discern beyond the seemingly ordinary
The most important aspect of the psychoanalytic approach can beconsider the idea of sensitive attention to the child, the desire
see beyond his seemingly ordinary words and actions
questions that truly bother or confuse him.
K.G. Jung critically remarks: “We must take
children as they are in
in fact, we need to stop seeing in
they are only what we would like to see in them,
and when raising them, we must conform not to
dead rules, but with natural
direction of development"
26. The further development of the psychoanalytic direction in psychology is associated with the names of K. Jung, A. Adler, K. Horney, A. Freud, M. Klein, E. Erikson
Further developmentpsychoanalytic direction in
psychology is associated with the names of C. Jung,
A. Adler, K. Horney, A. Freud, M.
Klein, E. Erickson, B. Bettelheim, M.
Mahler et al.
27. A. Freud (1895-1982)
Her works:"Introduction to Children's
psychoanalysis" (1927)
"Norm and pathology in
childhood" (1966), etc.
28. A. Freud believed that in the psychoanalysis of children:
You can and should use commonwith adults analytical methods:
hypnosis, free associations,
interpretation of dreams, symbols,
parapraxia (slips of the tongue, forgetting),
resistance analysis and transfer.
It is necessary to take into account the originality
child analysis techniques
29. New technical methods
Transformation analysis,undergone
affects
baby
(instead of sadness - a cheerful mood,
instead of jealousy - excessive tenderness)
Analysis of animal phobias, characteristics
school and family behavior of children
Analysis of children's play
30. When psychoanalyzing a child, the external world has a much stronger influence on the mechanism of neurosis than in an adult. The outside world will educate him
When psychoanalyzing a child, the outside world influencesmuch stronger influence on the mechanism
neurosis than in an adult. The outside world, it
educational influences - powerful
ally of the weak child's self in the fight against
instinctive tendencies.
31. English psychoanalyst Melanie Klein (1882-1960)
32.
The main focus waschild's spontaneous play activity
(specially created conditions:
the therapist provides the child with a lot of
small toys, "the whole world in
miniature" and gives him the opportunity
free to act for an hour).
The action is more characteristic of a child,
than speech
Observing various reactions
child, following the “stream of children’s play” (and
especially for manifestations
aggressiveness or compassion) the main method of studying the structure
child's experiences.
33.
May appear in the gamevarious emotional
states: feelings of frustration and
rejection, jealousy of members
family and related
aggressiveness, feelings of love or
hatred for the newborn,
fun to play with a friend,
confrontation with parents
feelings of anxiety, guilt and
desire to improve the situation.
Regular expression
child patient
interpretations of his behavior
helps him cope
emerging difficulties and
conflicts.
34. Modern psychoanalysts about the development and upbringing of children
35. J. Bowlby
Attachment theory: the mother is not importantjust because it satisfies
primary organic needs
child, in particular, satisfies hunger, but
the main thing is that she creates the child’s first
feeling of affection
Various disorders of the primary
emotional connection between mother and
child, “attachment disorder”
create a risk of personal
problems and mental illness
(for example, depression).
36. R. Spitz
Relationships between the childand mother at a very early age
influence
the formation of his personality in
subsequent
Concepts such as
"affection", "security"
establishing loved ones
relationships between children and adults,
creating conditions for establishing
interactions between children and parents
in the first hours after birth.
37. E. Fromm
Mother's love is unconditional:the child is loved simply because
he is.
Fatherly love - more
parts of conditional love, its
necessary and can be deserved
38. K. Bütner
Influencevideos,
cartoons, games,
toy industry
children's inner world
is constantly growing and
often it can be
rated harshly
negative
39. F. Dolto
"On the Child's Side", "On the Child's Side"teenager."
Problems: the nature of memories
childhood, the child’s well-being in
kindergarten and school, attitude towards
money and punishments, education
in an incomplete family, the norm and
pathology of parent-child
relationships, in vitro conception.
40. Conclusion
Child psychoanalysisinfluence on the organization of work with
children in educational and social
spheres, to work with parents.
numerous early childhood programs
interventions, treatment options
relationship between parents and
child", "father - mother - child" for
parents and children at risk
psychoanalytic therapy centers
children.
41.
Prepared the presentationstudent of group 673(2n)
Minkina Katya
