Memory is a psychophysiological process:
Carrying out reflection and accumulation of immediate and past individual and social experience;
Performing the functions of remembering, storing, reproducing and forgetting.
Memory serves as the basis for the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities and their subsequent use.
Memory processes
Storing some information in memory involves three processes.
The first one is memorization and encoding, during which the information that will be stored is highlighted.
The second is the actual storage of information. and its connection with the one that is already in memory.
The third stage is recognition and reproduction stored information; without it, we could never know what we actually remembered.
And there is another process:
Forgetting.
Memorization- retention of material in memory. Knowledge is the most important condition for the subsequent restoration of newly acquired knowledge. The success of learning is determined primarily by the possibility of incorporating new material into a system of meaningful connections. Depending on the place of learning processes in the structure of activity, a distinction is made between voluntary and involuntary learning. In the case of involuntary learning, a person does not set himself the task of remembering this or that material. Memory-bound processes perform operations here that serve other activities. As a result, learning is relatively spontaneous in nature and is carried out without special volitional efforts, preliminary selection of material, or the conscious use of any mnemonic techniques. At the same time, the dependence of Z. on the goals and motives of activity remains in this case. As studies have shown (P.I. Zinchenko, A.A. Smirnov), involuntary memory turns out to be much more successful than when the memorized material is included in the content of the goal of the action being performed. The specificity of the task being solved also plays an important role: focusing on semantic connections leads to deeper processing of the material and longer involuntary learning. Voluntary learning is a special action, the specific task of which is to remember accurately, for the longest possible period of time, for the purpose of subsequent reproduction or simply recognition - determines the choice of methods and means of protection, and thereby influences its results. Typical for this type of z. is a complex indirect structure. Commonly used methods of arbitrary knowledge include drawing up a preliminary plan, identifying semantic reference points, semantic and spatial grouping of material, presenting the material in the form of a visual visual image, and correlating it with existing knowledge. All other things being equal, voluntary learning is more productive than involuntary learning; it ensures greater systematicity, awareness of the assimilation of new knowledge, and controllability of this process. Repetition plays an important role among the mechanisms of healing. By prolonging the effective duration of exposure to information, it serves as a means of developing higher socialized forms of memory, primarily voluntary learning. At the same time, research shows that repetition is not absolutely necessary for long-term learning; in particular, its role is significantly reduced in life-long learning. important material and information that carries great meaning for the individual.
Saving- more or less long-term retention in memory of information obtained through experience. Preservation as a memory process has its own laws. It has been established that conservation can be dynamic and static. Dynamic storage occurs in working memory, while static storage occurs in long-term memory. With dynamic conservation, the material changes little; with static conservation, on the contrary, it must undergo reconstruction and processing.
Reconstruction of material stored by long-term memory occurs under the influence of information that is continuously received again. Reconstruction manifests itself in various forms: in the disappearance of some details and their replacement with other details, in changing the sequence of material, in its generalization.
Previously memorized knowledge interacts with newly acquired knowledge: it enters into new connections (associates), is clarified and differentiated, generalized and recoded. The experience stored by consciousness is constantly changing and enriching. Only what has been memorized as an independent integral statement is preserved and reproduced unchanged.
The preservation of information and its modification can be judged only by the following two memory processes - recognition and reproduction.
Memory is general designation for a complex of cognitive abilities and higher mental functions for the accumulation, preservation and reproduction of knowledge and skills. This is a complex mental process consisting of several private processes associated with each other.
Memory in different forms and species is inherent in all higher animals. Most advanced level memory is characteristic of humans.
Memory is necessary for a person. It allows him to accumulate, save and subsequently use personal, life experience. All consolidation of knowledge and skills relates to the work of memory. The study of memory was one of the first branches of psychological science where the experimental method was applied: attempts were made to measure the processes being studied and describe the laws to which they obey. Hermann Ebbinghaus is considered a pioneer in the study of human memory, who conducted experiments on himself (the main technique was memorizing meaningless lists of words or syllables).
The main characteristics of memory are: volume, speed of imprinting, accuracy of reproduction, duration of storage and readiness to use stored information. One of the most important characteristics of memory is memory capacity, as it characterizes the ability to memorize and retain information. And the number of remembered units of information is used as an indicator of memory capacity. Also very important is the parameter speed of reproduction, due to which there is the ability to use information that a person already has in practical activities.
Basic memory processes: memorization, storage, recognition, reproduction.
Memorization is a process that is aimed at storing received information in memory. There are two types of memorization: intentional (or voluntary) and unintentional (involuntary).
Involuntary memorization is when information is remembered by itself without special memorization, i.e. without a set goal and effort on the part of a person. This is a simple imprinting, and then reproducing what influenced us and preserving, so to speak, a “trace” in the cerebral cortex. For example, after attending a concert, we can remember a lot of what we saw there, although we did not set such a goal.
And voluntary memorization, when a person sets a specific goal to remember the necessary information and at the same time uses special memorization techniques. For example, memorizing a poem. Repeated repetition of any information makes it possible for a person to remember the material he needs firmly and for a long time. But the main factor in memorization is the goal, not only to perceive and understand the material, but also to actually remember it.
It is also customary to distinguish between mechanical and meaningful memorization. Rote memorization is memorization based on repeated repetition of material without its meaning, without awareness of the logical connection. And meaningful memorization is a logical comprehension of the material, when two provisions are remembered not because they follow each other, but because one position is a logical conclusion from the other.
The repetition method is one of the important conditions for mastering skills, abilities and knowledge; repetition contributes to high retention strength required material. Since memorization proceeds unevenly, in spurts and is temporary, it is certainly necessary to use the repetition method. What does repeated repetition have to do with it, because several repetitions in a row do not always give a significant increase in recall, but then, with subsequent repetitions, a sharp increase in the volume of memorized material already occurs.
Preservation is a process of active processing, systematization of material and mastery of it. The information that we perceive is stored for a certain time. Saving can be dynamic or static. Dynamic storage occurs in working memory, while static storage occurs in long-term memory. With static preservation, the material undergoes a certain processing and reconstruction (under the influence of new information constantly coming from the senses), while dynamic preservation changes little.
Reproduction is the process of recreating the image of an object that was previously perceived, but not perceived at the moment. Reproduction, like memorization, can be intentional or voluntary (the ability to reproduce a consciously set goal, for example, remembering a memorized poem) and unintentional (reproduction can happen unexpectedly for ourselves. For example, passing by a previous work, the image of a leader can unexpectedly be reproduced).
Recognition is a process of previously perceived things. But unlike reproduction, recognition occurs upon repeated encounter with an object, the idea of which has already been formed on the basis of personal experiences. For example, we can recognize a building that has not been seen before, but was described to us by someone with certain characteristics that are reflected in our ideas. Recognitions differ from each other in the degree of certainty and, in connection with this, recognition can be complete or indefinite.
Forgetting - This is the inability to restore information perceived earlier. It can manifest itself in two forms: the inability to recognize or remember and incorrect recall or recognition.
Types of memory are determined by what we remember. Any person remembers movements, images, feelings, and thoughts. There are several main approaches to memory classification. In this case, individual types of memory are distinguished in accordance with three main criteria:
- - by character mental activity, predominant in activity, memory is divided into motor, emotional, figurative and verbal-logical;
- - according to the nature of the goals of the activity - involuntary and voluntary;
- - according to the duration of securing and preserving materials (in connection with its role and place in the activity) - short-term, long-term and operational.
Motor (or motor) memory is the memorization, storage and reproduction of various movements. She participates in the formation of motor skills. And this is certainly very important, because without memory for movements we would have to learn to carry out the appropriate actions every time.
Emotional memory is the memory of feelings and experiences (the ability to remember and reproduce a feeling). Emotional memory is of utmost importance in the life and activities of every person. After all, emotions always signal how our needs and interests are satisfied and how relationships with the outside world are carried out. The strength of the reproduced feeling may be weaker or much stronger than the primary one. For example, delight or intense joy may be replaced by calm satisfaction; in another case, the resentment suffered earlier becomes worse when remembered. But changes can also occur in the content of our feelings. For example, an unfortunate misunderstanding experienced over time can be reproduced as a funny, interesting incident.
The main ability of figurative memory to preserve and subsequently use the data of our perception. The meaning of figurative memory is that what was previously perceived is then reproduced in the form of ideas. Many researchers divide figurative memory into visual, olfactory, gustatory, auditory and tactile. For example, if we take auditory memory, then we can talk about memorizing and accurately reproducing various sounds, for example, musical or speech. Visual memory is associated with the preservation and reproduction of visual images, which is very important for people in such a profession as an artist. This type memory presupposes a person’s developed ability to imagine. And we can say that what a person can visually imagine, he remembers and reproduces more easily. Tactile, olfactory and gustatory memory is responsible for satisfying biological needs, which in a sense are responsible for the safety and self-preservation of the body.
Verbal-logical memory is responsible for remembering and reproducing our thoughts. The peculiarity of this type of memory is that thoughts do not exist without language, therefore memory is called not just logical, but verbal-logical. We reproduce thoughts and, for example, remember the content of a conversation with friends or colleagues, or we have thoughts as a result of thinking about a book we read. With all this, verbal-logical memory can manifest itself in two cases: Only the meaning of the given material is remembered and reproduced, and precise preservation of original expressions is not required. In the second case, not only the meaning is remembered, but also the literal memorization of thoughts. It should be noted that these two subtypes of memory may not always coincide with each other. We are all individual and, for example, one person can easily enough without special effort learn the text by heart, but will not be able to recite the text in their own words. Others, on the contrary, will perfectly remember the meaning of what they read, but will not always be able to memorize the material firmly.
Involuntary memory is carried out automatically, without human effort and control by consciousness, and there is no goal to remember or remember something on purpose. In voluntary memory, the opposite is true; the process of memorization requires such a task and volitional effort on the part of the person. But this does not mean that involuntary memorization is weak or passive; it often happens that an involuntarily heard phrase or some material is remembered and reproduced much more easily and simply than something specially memorized.
The peculiarity of short-term memory is its selectivity. Thanks to it, a large amount of information is processed, unnecessary information is immediately eliminated and potentially useful remains. One could even say that short-term memory acts as a buffer that allows only the necessary and necessary memory to pass through. useful information into long-term memory. It also follows from this that without good short-term memory the functioning of long-term memory is impossible. A much larger amount of information can be transferred into long-term memory itself, since it ensures long-term storage of information. This is achieved by repeating the material that needs to be memorized. This is how the total volume of memorized material increases. Long-term memory is of two types: with conscious access (when a person voluntarily retrieves the information he needs) and closed (when a person does not have access to it, but can get it through hypnosis, when irritating parts of the brain. Then he can analyze in all details experiences and pictures from life).
RAM is a type of memory that manifests itself during the execution of a specific task, after which information can “leave” from RAM. For example, when a person solves a complex arithmetic operation, he carries it out in parts, while keeping intermediate results in his mind as long as he deals with them. And as he moves towards the final result, the spent intermediate material may be forgotten. On the other hand, we can say that in its properties this type of memory occupies an intermediate position between short-term and long-term memory.
Intermediate memory ensures the retention of information for several hours and also accumulates information throughout the day. And during night sleep, intermediate memory is cleared of information accumulated over the past day and transferred to long-term memory. It should also be noted that a person who sleeps less than 3 hours a day may suffer from disruption of various mental operations and decreased attention, since intermediate memory does not have time to be cleared.
Analyzing the types of memory, one can logically come to the conclusion that all types are closely related to each other and cannot exist independently of each other, and, of course, are important for the existence and functioning of humans.
memory professional strong-willed offense
Memory, like any other cognitive mental process, has certain characteristics. The main characteristics of memory are: volume, speed of imprinting, accuracy of reproduction, duration of storage, readiness to use stored information.
Memory capacity - this is the most important integral characteristic of memory, which characterizes the ability to memorize and retain information. When talking about memory capacity, the number of remembered units of information is used as an indicator.
A parameter like rapidity playback , characterizes a person’s ability to use the information he has in practical activities. As a rule, when faced with the need to solve any task or problem, a person turns to information that is stored in memory. At the same time, some people use their “information reserves” quite easily, while others, on the contrary, experience serious difficulties when trying to reproduce the information necessary to solve even a familiar problem.
Another characteristic of memory is fidelity . This characteristic reflects a person’s ability to accurately store, and most importantly, accurately reproduce information imprinted in memory. In the process of storing in memory, some information is lost, and some is distorted, and when reproducing this information, a person can make mistakes. Therefore, accuracy of reproduction is a very significant characteristic of memory.
The most important characteristic of memory is duration , it reflects a person’s ability to retain the necessary information for a certain time. Very often in practice we are faced with the fact that a person has memorized the necessary information, but cannot retain it for the required time. For example, a person is preparing for an exam. He remembers one academic topic, and when he starts to learn the next one, he suddenly discovers that he does not remember what he taught before. Sometimes it's different. The person remembered all the necessary information, but when it was necessary to reproduce it, he could not do it. However, after some time, he is surprised to note that he remembers everything that he managed to learn. In this case, we are faced with another characteristic of memory - the readiness to reproduce information imprinted in memory.
As we have already noted, memory is a complex mental process that combines a number of mental processes. The listed characteristics of memory are, to one degree or another, inherent in all processes that are united by the concept of “memory”. We will begin our acquaintance with the basic mechanisms and processes of memory with memorization.
Memorization - This is the process of imprinting and subsequent storage of perceived information. Based on the degree of activity of this process, it is customary to distinguish two types of memorization: unintentional (or involuntary) and intentional (or voluntary).
Unintentional remembering - this is memorization without a predetermined goal, without the use of any techniques and the manifestation of volitional efforts. This is a simple imprint of what affected us and retained some trace of excitation in the cerebral cortex. For example, after a walk in the forest or after visiting the theater, we can remember much of what we saw, although we did not specifically set ourselves the task of remembering.
In principle, every process that occurs in the cerebral cortex as a result of the influence of an external stimulus leaves behind traces, although the degree of their strength varies. What is remembered best is what is of vital importance to a person: everything that is connected with his interests and needs, with the goals and objectives of his activities. Therefore, even involuntary memorization, in a certain sense, is selective in nature and is determined by our attitude to the environment.
Unlike involuntary memorization arbitrary (or intentional) Memorization is characterized by the fact that a person sets a specific goal - to remember certain information - and uses special memorization techniques. Voluntary memorization is a special and complex mental activity subordinate to the task of remembering. In addition, voluntary memorization includes a variety of actions performed in order to better achieve a goal. Such actions, or methods of memorizing material, include memorization, the essence of which is repeated repetition. educational material until it is completely and accurately memorized. For example, poems, definitions, laws, formulas, historical dates, etc. are memorized. It should be noted that, other things being equal, voluntary memorization is noticeably more productive than unintentional memorization.
The main feature of intentional memorization is the manifestation of volitional efforts in the form of setting a memorization task. Repeated repetition allows you to reliably and firmly remember material that is many times greater than the capacity of individual short-term memory. Much of what is perceived in life a large number of times is not remembered by us if the task is not to remember. But if you set this task for yourself and perform all the actions necessary to implement it, memorization proceeds with relatively great success and turns out to be quite durable. Illustrating the importance of setting a memorization task, A.A. Smirnov cites as an example the case that happened with the Yugoslav psychologist P. Radossavlevich. He conducted an experiment with a person who did not understand the language in which the experiment was conducted. The essence of this experiment was to learn nonsense syllables. Usually, it took several repetitions to remember them. This time, the subject read them 20, 30, 40 and, finally, 46 times, but did not give the experimenter a signal that he remembered them. When the psychologist asked to repeat the series he had read by heart, the surprised subject, who did not understand the purpose of the experiment due to insufficient knowledge of the language, exclaimed: “How? So should I learn it by heart?” After which he read the series of syllables indicated to him six more times and repeated it without error.
Therefore, in order to remember as best as possible, it is imperative to set a goal - not only to perceive and understand the material, but also to really remember it.
It should be noted that when memorizing, not only the formulation of a general task (to remember what is perceived), but also the formulation of particular, special tasks is of great importance. In some cases, for example, the task is to remember only the essence of the material we perceive, only the main thoughts and the most significant facts, in others - to remember verbatim, in others - to accurately remember the sequence of facts, etc.
Thus, setting special tasks plays a significant role in memorization. Under its influence, the process of memorization itself can change. However, according to S. L. Rubinstein, memorization very much depends on the nature of the activity during which it is performed. Moreover, Rubinstein believed that it is impossible to draw unambiguous conclusions about the greater effectiveness of voluntary or involuntary memorization. The advantages of voluntary memorization are obvious only at first glance. Research by the famous Russian psychologist P.I. Zinchenko convincingly proved that the orientation towards memorization, which makes it the direct goal of the subject’s action, is not in itself decisive for the effectiveness of the memorization process. In certain cases, involuntary memorization may be more effective than voluntary memorization. In Zinchenko's experiments, unintentional memorization of pictures during an activity whose purpose was to classify them (without the task of remembering) turned out to be definitely higher than in the case when the subject was given the task of specifically remembering the pictures.
A study by A.A. Smirnov, devoted to the same problem, confirmed that involuntary memorization can be more productive than intentional: what the subjects memorized involuntarily, along the way in the process of activity, the purpose of which was not memorization, was remembered more firmly than what they tried to remember specially. The essence of the experiment was that the subjects were presented with two phrases, each of which corresponded to a spelling rule (for example, “my brother is learning Chinese” and “you need to learn to write in short phrases”). During the experiment, it was necessary to establish which rule a given phrase belongs to and come up with another pair of phrases on the same topic. There was no requirement to remember the phrases, but after a few days the subjects were asked to remember both those and other phrases. It turned out that the phrases they came up with themselves in the process of active activity were remembered about three times better than those that the experimenter gave them.
Consequently, memorization included in some activity turns out to be the most effective, since it turns out to depend on the activity during which it is performed.
What is remembered, as well as realized, first of all, is what constitutes the goal of our action. However, what is not related to the goal of the action is remembered worse than with voluntary memorization aimed specifically at this material. However, it is still necessary to take into account that the vast majority of our systematic knowledge arises as a result of special activities, the purpose of which is to remember the relevant material in order to retain it in memory. Such activity aimed at remembering and reproducing retained material is called mnemonic activity.
Mnemonic activity is a specifically human phenomenon, because only in humans does memorization become a special task, and memorizing material, storing it in memory and remembering becomes a special form of conscious activity. At the same time, a person must clearly separate the material that he was asked to remember from all side impressions. Therefore, mnemonic activity is always selective.
It should be noted that the study of human mnemonic activity is one of the central problems of modern psychology. The main objectives of studying mnemonic activity are to determine the amount of memory available to a person and the maximum possible speed of memorizing material, as well as the time during which the material can be retained in memory. These tasks are not simple, especially since the processes of memorization in specific cases have a number of differences.
Another characteristic of the memorization process is the degree of comprehension of the memorized material. Therefore, it is customary to distinguish between meaningful and mechanical memorization.
Rote - this is memorization without awareness of the logical connection between various parts of the perceived material. An example of such memorization is memorizing statistical data, historical dates, etc. The basis of rote memorization is associations by contiguity. One piece of material is associated with another only because it follows it in time or space. In order for such a connection to be established, the material must be repeated many times.
In contrast, meaningful memorization is based on understanding the internal logical connections between individual parts of the material. Two provisions, of which one is a conclusion from the other, are remembered not because they follow each other in time, but because they are logically connected. Therefore, meaningful memorization is always associated with thinking processes and relies mainly on generalized connections between parts of the material at the level of the second signaling system.
It has been proven that meaningful memorization is many times more productive than mechanical memorization. Rote memorization is wasteful and requires many repetitions. A person cannot always remember what he has learned mechanically in place and time. Meaningful memorization requires significantly less effort and time from a person, but is more effective. However, practically both types of memorization - mechanical and meaningful - are closely intertwined with each other. When learning by heart, we mainly rely on semantic connections, but the exact sequence of words is remembered using contiguity associations. On the other hand, by memorizing even incoherent material, we are, one way or another, trying to build meaningful connections. Thus, one of the ways to increase the volume and strength of memorization of unrelated words is to create a conditional logical connection between them. In certain cases, this connection may be meaningless in content, but very striking in terms of ideas. For example, you need to remember a number of words: watermelon, table, elephant, comb, button, etc. To do this, we will construct a conditional logical chain of the following form: “The watermelon is on the table. An elephant sits at the table. There is a comb in the pocket of his vest, and the vest itself is fastened with one button.” And so on. Using this technique, within one minute you can remember up to 30 words or more (depending on the training) with a single repetition.
If we compare these methods of memorizing material - meaningful and mechanical - then we can come to the conclusion that meaningful memorization is much more productive. With mechanical memorization, only 40% of the material remains in the memory after one hour, and after a few hours - only 20%, and in the case of meaningful memorization, 40% of the material is retained in memory even after 30 days.
The advantage of meaningful memorization over mechanical memorization is very clearly demonstrated when analyzing the costs required to increase the volume of memorized material. When learning mechanically, as the volume of material increases, a disproportionately large increase in the number of repetitions is required. For example, if learning six nonsense words requires only one repetition, learning 12 words requires 14–16 repetitions, and 36 words requires 55 repetitions. Therefore, when increasing the material by six times, it is necessary to increase the number of repetitions by 55 times. At the same time, with an increase in the volume of meaningful material (a poem), in order to remember it, it is necessary to increase the number of repetitions from two to 15 times, i.e., the number of repetitions increases by 7.5 times, which convincingly indicates the greater productivity of meaningful memorization. Therefore, let's take a closer look at the conditions that contribute to meaningful and lasting memorization of material.
Comprehension of the material is achieved by various methods, and above all highlighting the main thoughts in the material being studied and grouping them in the form of a plan . When using this technique, when memorizing a text, we divide it into more or less independent sections, or groups of thoughts. Each group includes something that has one common semantic core, a single theme. Closely related to this technique is the second way to facilitate memorization: highlighting semantic reference points . The essence of this method is that we replace each semantic part with some word or concept that reflects the main idea of the memorized material. Then, in both the first and second cases, we combine what we have learned by mentally making a plan. Each point of the plan is a generalized heading of a certain part of the text. The transition from one part to the next parts is a logical sequence of the main ideas of the text. When reproducing a text, the material is concentrated around the headings of the plan and is drawn towards them, which makes it easier to remember. The need to draw up a plan accustoms a person to thoughtful reading, comparison of individual parts of the text, clarification of the order and internal relationship of issues.
It has been established that students who make a plan when memorizing texts exhibit stronger knowledge than those who memorize the text without such a plan.
A useful technique for understanding the material is comparison , i.e. finding similarities and differences between objects, phenomena, events, etc. One of the variants of this method is to compare the material being studied with that obtained previously. So, studying with children new material, the teacher often compares it with what has already been studied, thereby including new material in the knowledge system. The material is compared in a similar way with other information just received. For example, it is easier to remember the dates of birth and death of M.Yu. Lermontov if they are compared with each other: 1814. and 1841
It also helps to comprehend the material specification , explaining general provisions and rules with examples, solving problems in accordance with the rules, conducting observations, laboratory work, etc. There are other ways of thinking.
The most important method of meaningful memorization of material and achieving high strength of its preservation is repetition method . Repetition is the most important condition for mastering knowledge, skills and abilities. But to be productive, repetitions must meet certain requirements. The conducted research revealed some patterns in the use of the repetition method. Firstly, memorization proceeds unevenly: after an increase in reproduction, there may be a slight decrease. Moreover, it is temporary in nature, since new repetitions provide a significant increase in recall.
Secondly, learning occurs in leaps and bounds. Sometimes several repetitions in a row do not provide a significant increase in recall, but then, with subsequent repetitions, there is a sharp increase in the volume of memorized material. This is explained by the fact that the traces left each time an object is perceived are at first insufficient for recall, but then, after several repetitions, their influence is felt immediately, and, moreover, in a large number of words.
Thirdly, if the material as a whole is not difficult to remember, then the first repetitions give better results than subsequent ones. Each new repetition gives a very slight increase in the volume of memorized material. This is explained by the fact that the main, easier part is memorized quickly, and the remaining, more difficult part requires a large number of repetitions.
Fourthly, if the material is difficult, then memorization proceeds, on the contrary, first slowly and then quickly. This is explained by the fact that the actions of the first repetitions are insufficient due to the difficulty of the material and the increase in the volume of memorized material increases only with repeated repetitions.
Fifthly, repetitions are needed not only when we learn the material, but also when we need to consolidate in memory what we have already learned. When repeating memorized material, its strength and duration of retention increase many times over.
In addition to the above-mentioned patterns of using the repetition method, there are conditions that contribute to increasing the efficiency of memorization. It is very important that the repetition is active and varied. To do this, the learner is given different tasks: to come up with examples, answer questions, draw a diagram, make a table, make a visual aid, etc. With active repetition, connections are revived at the level of the second signaling system, since the variety of forms of repetition contributes to the formation of new connections between the studied material and practice. As a result, memorization becomes more complete. Passive repetition does not give such an effect. In one experiment, students learned texts by repeating them five times. Analysis of the effectiveness of each reading showed that as soon as repetition becomes passive, memorization becomes unproductive.
It is also very important to correctly distribute the repetition over time. In psychology, there are two known methods of repetition: concentrated And distributed . In the first method, the material is learned in one step, repetition follows one after another without interruption. For example, if it takes 12 repetitions to memorize a poem, then the student reads it 12 times in a row until he learns it. With distributed repetition, each read is separated from the other by some distance.
Conducted research shows that distributed repetition is more rational than concentrated repetition. It saves time and energy, promoting a more lasting assimilation of knowledge. In one study, two groups of schoolchildren memorized a poem in different ways: the first group - concentrated, the second - distributed. Complete memorization with the concentrated method required 24 repetitions, and with the distributed method - only 10, i.e. 2.4 times less. At the same time, distributed repetition also ensures greater strength of knowledge. Therefore, experienced teachers repeat educational material with students for a whole year, but in order to ensure that the children’s activity does not decrease, they diversify repetition techniques and include the material in new and new connections.
Very close to the distributed learning method method of reproduction while learning . Its essence lies in attempts to reproduce material that has not yet been fully learned. For example, you can learn the material in two ways: a) limit yourself to reading only and read until you are sure that it has been learned; b) read the material once or twice, then try to reproduce it, then read it again several times and try to reproduce it again, etc. Experiments show that the second option is much more productive and expedient. Learning is faster and retention is stronger.
The productivity of memorization also depends on how memorization is carried out: in general or in parts. In psychology, there are three ways to memorize large amounts of material: holistic, partial and combined. The first method (holistic) is that the material (text, poem, etc.) is read from beginning to end several times until completely mastered. In the second method (partial), the material is divided into parts and each part is learned separately. First, one part is read several times, then the second, then the third, etc. The combined method is a combination of holistic and partial. The material is first read in its entirety one or several times, depending on its volume and nature, then difficult parts are highlighted and memorized separately, after which the entire text is read in its entirety again. If the material, for example, a poetic text, is large in volume, then it is divided into stanzas, logically complete parts, and memorization occurs in this way: first, the text is read once or twice from beginning to end, its general meaning is clarified, then each part is memorized, after which the material is read in its entirety again.
Research by M.N. Shardakov showed that of these methods, the most appropriate is combined. It ensures uniform memorization of all parts of the material, requires deep understanding, and the ability to highlight the main thing. Such activities are carried out with greater concentration of attention, hence its greater productivity. In Shardakov’s experiments, students who memorized the poem in a combined way required only 9 repetitions, when memorizing as a whole - 14 repetitions, and when memorizing in parts - 16 repetitions.
It should be noted that the success of memorization largely depends on the level of self-control. A manifestation of self-control is attempts to reproduce the material while memorizing it. Such attempts help to establish what we remember, what mistakes we made during reproduction, and what we should pay attention to in subsequent reading. In addition, memorization productivity also depends on the nature of the material. Visual and figurative material is remembered better than verbal, and logically connected text is reproduced more completely than scattered sentences.
There are certain differences in memorizing descriptive and explanatory texts. Thus, primary and secondary school students remember literary passages and natural science descriptions better, and socio-historical texts worse. At the same time, in high school these differences are almost absent.
Thus, for successful memorization it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the mechanisms of the memorization process and use a variety of mnemonic techniques. In conclusion, let us schematically display the presented material (Fig. 1).
Rice. 1. Memorization mechanisms
Preservation, reproduction, recognition. Saving – retention of memorized information for a certain time.
We not only remember all the information that was perceived, but also save it for a certain time. Preservation as a memory process has its own laws. For example, it has been established that conservation can be dynamic And static . Dynamic storage occurs in working memory, while static storage occurs in long-term memory. With dynamic preservation, the material changes little; with static preservation, on the contrary, it necessarily undergoes reconstruction and certain processing.
Reconstruction of material stored in long-term memory occurs primarily under the influence of new information continuously arriving from our senses. Reconstruction manifests itself in various forms, for example, in the disappearance of some less significant details and their replacement with other details, in a change in the sequence of material, in the degree of its generalization.
Retrieval of material from memory is carried out using two processes - reproduction and recognition. Playback - this is the process of recreating the image of an object that we previously perceived, but is not perceived at the moment. Reproduction differs from perception in that it occurs after it and outside of it. Thus, the physiological basis of reproduction is the renewal of neural connections formed earlier during the perception of objects and phenomena.
Like memorization, recall can be unintentional (involuntary) And intentional (voluntary). In the first case, reproduction occurs unexpectedly for us. For example, when passing by the school where we studied, we can suddenly reproduce the image of the teacher who taught us, or the images of school friends. A special case of unintentional reproduction is the appearance of perseverative images, which are characterized by exceptional stability.
With voluntary recall, as opposed to involuntary recall, we remember with a consciously set goal. Such a goal is the desire to remember something from our past experience, for example when we set the goal to remember a well-learned poem. In this case, as a rule, the words “go by themselves.”
There are cases when reproduction occurs in the form of a more or less prolonged recollection . In these cases, the achievement of the set goal - to remember something - is carried out through the achievement of intermediate goals that allow solving the main task. For example, in order to remember an event, we try to remember all the facts that are in one way or another connected with it. Moreover, the use of intermediate links is usually of a conscious nature. We consciously outline what might help us remember, or think about how what we are looking for is related to it, or evaluate whatever we remember, or judge why it doesn't fit, etc. Therefore, the processes recall is closely related to thinking processes.
At the same time, when remembering, we often encounter difficulties. We first remember the wrong thing, reject it and set ourselves the task of remembering something again. Obviously, all this requires certain volitional efforts from us. Therefore, remembering is at the same time a volitional process.
In addition to reproduction, we constantly encounter such a phenomenon as recognition . Recognition of an object occurs at the moment of its perception and means that there is a perception of an object, the idea of which was formed in a person either on the basis of personal impressions (memory representation) or on the basis of verbal descriptions (imagination representation). For example, we recognize the house in which a friend lives, but which we have never been to, and recognition occurs due to the fact that this house was previously described to us, they were explained by what signs to find it, which was reflected in our ideas about it.
It should be noted that recognition processes differ from each other in the degree of certainty. Recognition is least certain in those cases when we only experience a feeling of familiarity of an object, but cannot identify it with anything from past experience. For example, we see a person whose face seems familiar to us, but we cannot remember who he is and under what circumstances we could have met him. Such cases are characterized uncertainty of recognition . In other cases, recognition, on the contrary, is characterized by complete certainty: we immediately recognize the person as a certain person. Therefore, these cases are characterized full recognition .
It should be noted that there are many similarities between definite and indefinite recognition. Both of these variants of recognition unfold gradually, and therefore they are often close to recollection, and therefore are a complex mental and volitional process.
Along with different types correct recognition, there are also errors in recognition. For example, what is perceived for the first time sometimes seems familiar to us, having already been experienced once in exactly the same form. An interesting fact is that the impression of a familiar place can remain even when we know for sure that we have never seen this object or were not in this situation.
In addition, you should pay attention to another very interesting feature of recognition and reproduction. The processes of recognition and reproduction are not always carried out with equal success. Sometimes it happens that we can recognize an object, but we are unable to reproduce it when it is missing. There are cases of the opposite kind: we have some ideas, but we cannot say what they are connected with. For example, we are constantly “haunted” by some melody, but we cannot say where it comes from. Most often we experience difficulties in reproducing something, and much less often such difficulties arise in recognition. As a rule, we are able to find out when it is impossible to reproduce. Thus, we can conclude: recognition is easier than reproduction.
Forgetting is expressed in the inability to restore previously perceived information. The physiological basis of forgetting is certain types of cortical inhibition, which interferes with the actualization of temporary neural connections. Most often this is the so-called extinctive inhibition, which develops in the absence of reinforcement.
Forgetting manifests itself in two main forms: a) inability to remember or recognize; b) incorrect recall or recognition. Between complete recall and complete forgetting, there are varying degrees of recall and recognition. Some researchers call them "memory levels." It is customary to distinguish three such levels: 1) reproducing memory; 2) recognition memory; 3) facilitating memory. For example, a student learned a poem. If after some time he can reproduce it flawlessly, this is the first level of memory, the highest; if he cannot reproduce what he has memorized, but easily recognizes (recognizes) a poem in a book or by ear - this is the second level of memory; if the student is unable to either remember or recognize the poem on his own, but when he memorizes it again, it will take him less time to fully reproduce it than the first time, this is the third level. Thus, the degree of manifestation may vary. At the same time, the nature of the manifestation of forgetting may be different. Forgetting can manifest itself in the schematization of material, discarding individual, sometimes significant, parts of it, and reducing new ideas to familiar old ideas.
It should be noted that forgetting occurs unevenly over time. The greatest loss of material occurs immediately after its perception, and later forgetting occurs more slowly. For example, Ebbinghaus’s experiments, which we discussed in the first section of this chapter, showed that an hour after learning 13 nonsense syllables, forgetting reaches 56%, but later it goes slower (Fig. 2).
Memory is a mental cognitive process consisting of memorizing, storing, subsequent recognition and reproduction of various information by a person.
Thus, memory is a complex mental process consisting of several private processes associated with each other.
Within the memory, individual processes can be distinguished. The main ones are remembering, saving, reproduction, recognition And forgetting.
The activity of memory begins with memorization.
Memorization - this is the process of imprinting and subsequent preservation of perceived information, i.e., from consolidating those images and impressions that arise in consciousness under the influence of objects and phenomena of reality in the process of sensation and perception. Based on the degree of activity of this process, it is customary to distinguish two types of memorization: unintentional (or involuntary) And intentional (or arbitrary).
Unintentional memorization is memorization without a predetermined goal, without the use of any techniques and the manifestation of volitional efforts. This is a simple imprint of what affected us and retained some trace of excitation in the cerebral cortex. For example, after a walk in the forest or after visiting the theater, we can remember much of what we saw, although we did not specifically set ourselves the task of remembering.
In principle, every process that occurs in the cerebral cortex as a result of the influence of an external stimulus leaves behind traces, although the degree of their strength varies. What is remembered best is what is of vital importance to a person: everything that is connected with his interests and needs, with the goals and objectives of his activities. Therefore, even involuntary memorization, in a certain sense, is selective in nature and is determined by our attitude to the environment.
Unlike involuntary memorization arbitrary(or intentional) memorization is characterized by the fact that a person sets a specific goal - to remember some information - and uses special memorization techniques. Voluntary memorization is a special and complex mental activity subordinate to the task of remembering. In addition, voluntary memorization includes a variety of actions performed in order to better achieve a goal.
It is customary to highlight meaningful And mechanical memorization.
Rote memorization - This is memorization without awareness of the logical connection between different parts of the perceived material. An example of such memorization is memorization, memorization of statistical data, historical dates, etc. The basis of rote memorization is repeated repetition of material.
In contrast to this meaningful memorization based on understanding the internal logical connections between individual parts of the material. Two provisions of which one is a conclusion from the other are remembered not because they follow each other in time, but because they are logically connected. Therefore, meaningful memorization is always associated with thinking processes and relies mainly on generalized connections between parts of the material at the level of the second signaling system.
Comprehension of the material is achieved by the following techniques:
o highlighting the main thoughts in the material being studied and grouping them in the form of a plan;
o highlighting semantic reference points;
o comparison;
o repetition method: concentrated and distributed;
o method of reproduction during memorization;
The advantages of voluntary memorization are obvious only at first glance. Research by the famous Russian psychologist P.I. Zinchenko has convincingly proven that the orientation towards memorization, which makes it the direct goal of the subject’s action, is not in itself decisive for the effectiveness of the memorization process. In certain cases, involuntary memorization may be more effective than voluntary memorization. In Zinchenko's experiments, unintentional memorization of pictures during an activity whose purpose was to classify them (without the task of remembering) turned out to be definitely higher than in the case when the subject was given the task of specifically remembering the pictures.
Saving - this is the retention of what has been learned in memory, i.e. the preservation of traces and connections in the brain. In the brain, nerve connections are established between cells, resulting in the formation of a nerve pathway.
Forgetting - disappearance, loss from memory, i.e. the process of extinction, elimination, “erasing” of traces, inhibition of connections. These two processes, opposite in nature, essentially represent different characteristics one process: we talk about storing material in memory when there is no forgetting, and forgetting is poor preservation of memory material. Therefore, preservation is nothing more than a fight against forgetting.
Forgetting is a very expedient, natural and necessary process and should not always be assessed negatively. If we did not have the ability to forget, our memory would be filled with a mass of small and unnecessary information, facts, details, details. Our brain would be overloaded with information. And forgetting allows the brain to free itself from excess information. Many people with phenomenal (outstanding) memory complain that their brain is literally “clogged” with many unnecessary facts and this often prevents them from remembering the necessary and necessary information.
Everything that a person once perceived does not disappear without a trace - traces of the excitation process are preserved in the cerebral cortex, which create the possibility of re-occurrence of excitation in the absence of the stimulus that caused it. Thanks to this, a person can remember and save, and subsequently reproduce the image of a missing object or reproduce previously acquired knowledge. Like perception, memory is a process of reflection, but in this case not only what is immediately active is reflected, but also what took place in the past.
Memory- this is a special form of reflection, one of the main mental processes aimed at consolidating mental phenomena in the physiological code, preserving them in this form and reproducing them in the form of subjective ideas.
In the cognitive sphere, memory occupies a special place; without it, knowledge of the world around us is impossible. The activity of memory is necessary when solving any cognitive problem, since memory underlies any mental phenomenon and connects a person’s past with his present and future. Without including memory in the act of cognition, all sensations and perceptions will be perceived as having arisen for the first time and comprehension of the surrounding world will become impossible.
Physiological basis of memory.
Memory is based on the property of nervous tissue to change under the influence of a stimulus and to retain traces of nervous excitation. The strength of the traces depends on what kind of traces took place. At the first stage, immediately after exposure to the stimulus, short-term electrochemical reactions occur in the brain, causing reversible physiological changes in cells. This stage lasts from several seconds to several minutes and is a physiological mechanism of short-term memory - there are traces, but they have not yet been consolidated. At the second stage, a biochemical reaction occurs associated with the formation of new protein substances, which leads to irreversible chemical changes in cells. This is a mechanism of long-term memory - traces are strengthened and can exist for a long time.
In order for information to be stored in memory, some time is necessary, the so-called time of consolidation, strengthening of traces. A person experiences this process as an echo of an event that has just happened: for some time he continues to see, hear, feel something that he no longer directly perceives (“stands before his eyes,” “sounds in his ears,” etc.). Consolidation time - 15 min.
Temporary loss of consciousness in people leads to forgetting what happened in the period immediately preceding this event - anterograde amnesia occurs - a temporary inability of the brain to record traces. Objects or phenomena that are connected in reality are also connected in human memory. To remember something means to connect the memorization with what is already known, to form an association. Hence, physiological basis memory is also the formation and functioning of a temporary neural connection (association) between the individual links of what was previously perceived. There are two types of associations: simple and complex.
Three types of associations are considered simple:
1) by contiguity - two phenomena connected in time or space are combined (Chuk and Gek, Prince and Pauper, alphabet, multiplication table, arrangement of pieces on a chessboard);
2) by similarity - phenomena that have similar features are associated (willow - a woman in the mountain, “cherry blizzard”, poplar fluff - snow;
3) by contrast - two opposite phenomena are connected (winter - summer, black - white, heat - cold, health - illness, sociability - isolation, etc.).
Complex (semantic) associations are the basis of our knowledge, since they connect phenomena that in reality are constantly connected:
1) part - whole (tree - branch, hand - finger);
2) genus - species (animal - mammal - cow);
3) cause - effect (smoking in bed leads to a fire);
4) functional connections (fish - water, bird - sky, air).
For the formation of a temporary connection, a repeated coincidence of two stimuli in time is required, i.e., repetition is required for the formation of associations. One more an important condition for the formation of associations is business reinforcement, i.e., the inclusion of what needs to be remembered in the activity.
Memory processes.
The memory includes several interconnected processes: remembering, storing, forgetting and reproducing.
Memorization is a process aimed at preserving received impressions in memory by associating them with existing experience. From a physiological point of view, memorization is the formation and consolidation in the brain of traces of excitation from the influence of the surrounding world (things, drawings, thoughts, words, etc.). The nature of memorization, its strength, brightness, clarity depend on the characteristics of the stimulus, the nature of the activity, and the mental state of the person. The process of memorization can occur in three forms: imprinting, involuntary and voluntary memorization.
Imprint(imprinting) is a strong and accurate storage of events as a result of a single presentation of material for a few seconds. The state of imprinting - instantaneous imprinting - occurs in a person at the moment of the highest emotional stress (eidetic images).
Involuntary memorization occurs in the absence of a conscious intention to remember with repeated repetition of the same stimulus, is selective in nature and depends on the actions of a person, i.e. determined by motives, goals, emotional attitude to activity. Something unusual, interesting, emotionally exciting, unexpected, bright is unintentionally remembered.
Voluntary memorization in humans it is the leading form. It arose in the process labor activity and is caused by the need to preserve knowledge, skills and abilities, without which work is impossible. This is a higher level of memorization with a pre-set goal and the application of volitional efforts.
For greater efficiency of voluntary memorization, the following conditions must be met:
The presence of a psychological attitude towards memorization;
Understanding the meaning of acquired knowledge;
Self-control, a combination of memorization and reproduction;
Reliance on rational memorization techniques.
Rational methods of memorization (mnemonic methods) include highlighting strong points, semantic grouping of material, highlighting the main thing, drawing up a plan, etc.
A type of voluntary memorization is memorization - systematic, planned, specially organized memorization using mnemonic techniques.
According to the result, memorization can be verbatim, close to the text, semantic, requiring mental processing of the material, according to the method - in general, in parts, combined. According to the nature of the connections, memorization is divided into mechanical and logical (semantic), the effectiveness of which is 20 times higher than mechanical. Logical memorization involves a certain organization of material, understanding the meaning, connections between parts of the material, understanding the meaning of each word and the use of figurative memorization techniques (diagrams, graphs, pictures).
The main conditions for lasting memorization are:
Awareness of the goal, task;
Presence of a memorization setting;
Rational repetition is active and distributed, since it is more effective than passive and continuous.
Retention is the process of more or less long-term retention in memory of information obtained through experience. From a physiological point of view, preservation is the existence of traces in a latent form. This is not a passive process of retaining information, but a process of active processing, systematization, generalization of material, and mastery of it.
Conservation primarily depends on:
From personality attitudes;
The forces of influence of the memorized material;
Interest in reflected impacts;
Human conditions. When tired, weakened nervous system, in a serious illness, forgetting manifests itself very sharply. Thus, it is known that Walter Scott wrote “Ivanhoe” during a serious illness. Reading the work after recovery, he could not remember when or how he wrote it.
The process of preservation has two sides - actual preservation and forgetting.
Forgetting- This natural process fading, liquidation, erasing traces, inhibiting connections. It is selective in nature: what is forgotten is what is not important for a person and does not correspond to his needs. Forgetting is an expedient, natural and necessary process that gives the brain the opportunity to free itself from excess unnecessary information.
Forgetting can be complete - the material is not only not reproduced, but also not recognized; partial - a person recognizes the material, but cannot reproduce it or reproduces it with errors; temporary - when nerve connections are inhibited, complete - when they fade.
The process of forgetting proceeds unevenly: at first quickly, then slows down. The highest percentage of forgetting occurs in the first 48 hours after memorization, and this continues for another three days. Over the next five days, forgetting progresses more slowly.
This leads to the following conclusion:
The material must be repeated a short time after memorization (the first repetition is after 40 minutes), since after an hour only 50% of the mechanically memorized information remains in the memory;
It is necessary to distribute repetitions over time - it is better to repeat the material in small portions once every 10 days than three days before the exam;
Understanding and comprehension of information is necessary;
To reduce forgetting, it is necessary to include knowledge in activities.
The reasons for forgetting can be either non-repetition of the material (fading connections) or repeated repetition, during which extreme inhibition occurs in the cerebral cortex.
Forgetting depends on the nature of the activity that precedes memorization and occurs after it. The negative influence of the activity preceding memorization is called proactive inhibition, and the activity following memorization is called retroactive inhibition, which occurs in cases when, after memorization, an activity similar to it or requiring significant effort is performed.
The material stored in memory changes qualitatively, is reconstructed, traces become paler, bright colors fade, but not always: sometimes later, delayed reproduction turns out to be more complete and accurate than earlier. This improved delayed reproduction, characteristic primarily of children, is called reminiscence.
Playback- the most active, creative process, which consists in recreating in activity and communication the material stored in memory. There are the following forms: recognition, involuntary reproduction, voluntary reproduction, recollection and recollection.
Recognition- this is the perception of an object in conditions of its repeated perception, which occurs due to the presence of a weak trace in the cerebral cortex. It's easier to learn than to reproduce. Out of 50 objects, a person recognizes 35.
Involuntary reproduction- this is reproduction that occurs as if “by itself.” There are also obsessive forms of reproduction any representation of memory, movement, speech, which are called perseveration(from Lat. I persist). The physiological mechanism of perseveration is the inertia of the excitation process in the cerebral cortex, the so-called “stagnant focus of excitation.” Perseveration can occur in quite healthy person, but is more often observed with fatigue, oxygen starvation. Sometimes an obsession, a thought (idefix) becomes a symptom of a neuropsychic disorder - neurosis.
Random Play- this is reproduction with a pre-set goal, awareness of the task, and effort.
Recall- an active form of reproduction associated with tension, requiring volitional effort and special techniques - association, reliance on recognition. Recall depends on the clarity of the tasks and the logical ordering of the material.
Memory- reproduction of images in the absence of perception of the object, “historical memory of the individual.”
Types of memory.
There are several types of memory based on various criteria.
1. According to the nature of mental activity prevailing in the activity, memory can be figurative, emotional and verbal-logical.
Figurative memory includes visual, auditory, eidetic memory (a rare type of memory that retains a vivid image for a long time with all the details of what was perceived, which is a consequence of the inertia of excitation of the cortical end of the visual or auditory analyzers); olfactory, tactile, gustatory and motor, or motor (a special subtype of figurative memory, consisting of memorizing, storing and reproducing various movements and their systems). Motor memory is the basis for the formation of practical, labor and sports skills. Figurative memory is inherent in both animals and people.
Emotional memory- this is a memory for feelings and emotional states, which, being experienced and stored in consciousness, act as signals either inducing activity or restraining from actions that caused negative experiences in the past. The ability to sympathize and empathize is based on emotional memory, since it regulates human behavior depending on previously experienced feelings. Lack of emotional memory leads to emotional dullness. In animals, what caused pain, anger, fear, rage is remembered faster and allows them to avoid similar situations in the future.
Verbal-logical(semantic, symbolic) memory is based on the establishment and memorization of semantic concepts, formulations, ideas, sayings. This is a specifically human type of memory.
2. According to the degree of volitional regulation, the presence or absence of a goal and special mnemonic actions are distinguished involuntary memory when information is remembered by itself - without setting a goal, without making efforts, and random memory, in which memorization is carried out purposefully using special techniques.
3. Duration of maternal preservation ala distinguish short-term, long-term and working memory.
Long-term memory is the main type of memory that ensures long-term preservation of what is imprinted (sometimes throughout life). Long-term memory is of two types: open access, when a person can voluntarily retrieve the necessary information, and closed, access to which is possible only under hypnosis. With short-term memory, material is stored for up to 15 minutes. Working memory involves retaining intermediate materials in memory as long as a person deals with them.
Properties (quality) of memory.
These include :
Memorization speed - the number of repetitions required to retain the material in memory;
The rate of forgetting is the time during which the material is stored in memory;
The memory capacity for completely new material and material that does not make sense is equal to the “Miller's magic number” (7 ± 2), indicating the number of pieces of information retained in memory;
Accuracy - the ability to reproduce information without distortion;
Mobilization readiness is the ability to recall the right material at the right time.
Memory develops through exercise and hard work on memorization, long-term preservation, complete and accurate reproduction. The more a person knows, the easier it is for him to remember new things, linking and associating new material with what is already known. With a general decline in memory with age, the level of professional memory does not decrease, and sometimes can even increase. All this allows us to draw the following conclusion: memory as a mental phenomenon is not only a gift of nature, but also the result of targeted upbringing.
