First consonant movement
One of the early stages, which led to the identification of phonetic features in the Proto-Germanic language, is otherwise called the first movement of consonants. As a result of this process, a number of consonants of the Proto-Indo-European language passed into those closer to the Germanic ones, highlighting the latter as a characteristic of a completely different language branch. Yes, voiceless plosives p, t, k, kʷ turned into fricatives f, þ, h, hw. In turn, voiced b, d, g, gʷ went into the wilderness p, t, k, kʷ. Finally, aspirates bʰ, dʰ, gʰ, gʷʰ began to be pronounced as voiced b, d, g, gw. These changes caused the formation of the morphological features of the Proto-Germanic language.
Second consonant movement
The next stage in the formation of phonetics became decisive for the identification of the Old High German language, which is the ancestor of the modern literary German language. Consequently, his phonetics became the foundation for modern German phonetics. The driving force behind the new metamorphosis was the second consonant movement. It should be borne in mind that this process did not affect all the languages of the Germans, but only that part of them that today is located in the zone of High German dialects, including the southern parts of the Frankish dialect. In Low German there is no influence of the second movement.
The changes that occurred as a result of this process affected the occlusions p, t, k, which, depending on their position in the word, formed sibilants f", s, h or affricates pf, ts, kh. Another group of vowels that have undergone changes includes the Germanic fricatives ƀ/b, đ/d, ǥ/g, þ, which became explosive p, t, k, d in Old High German.
Phonetics of the German language of the Middle Ages and modern times
Changes in the phonetic structure of New High German
Despite the existence of relatively uniform rules of phonetics, phonological system and orthoepic rules, in German-speaking countries they continue to neglect “pronunciation ideals”, using local more familiar rules, which is typical for pluricentric languages. German pronunciation in Germany is still considered common, which is due to the large number of native speakers using this pronunciation and the greater influence of German television and radio broadcasting. However, even in Germany itself, pronunciation varies depending on the state, which complicates the task of determining standard rules. Below is a brief description of phonetics and phonology according to general rules Germany.
Sound system
In sound system German language Two main subsystems should be distinguished - vowels and consonants. The first are divided into monophthongs and diphthongs, that is, single and double vowel sounds. The latter are divided into consonants proper and affricates, which are a combination of two consonant sounds.
Vowel sounds
German phonetics has a fairly complex system of vowel sounds, consisting of 16 phonemes. All of them are transmitted by the corresponding letters - a, e, i, o, u, ä, ö And ü . In borrowings and proper names the letter is also used y and less often é . Depending on the length of the vowel, pairs are distinguished: /aː/ and /a/, /eː/ and /ɛ/, /iː/ and /ɪ/, /oː/ and /ɔ/, /uː/ and /ʊ/, /ɛː / and /ɛ/, /øː/ and /œ/, and /yː/ and /ʏ/.
| Phoneme | Characteristic | Sound |
|---|---|---|
| /a/ | short, unrounded vowel of the front row of the lower rise or the back row of the lower rise as in the word K a mm | |
| /aː/ | (long,) unrounded vowel of the front or back row of the lower rise as in the word k a m | |
| /ɛ / | short, unrounded vowel of the front row of the middle-low rise as in the word St e lle | [ɛ ] |
| /ə / | short, unrounded vowel of the front row of the middle-low rise or suture as in the word bitt e | [ɛ ]/[ə ] |
| /ɛː / | long, unrounded front vowel of mid-low or mid-high rise as in the word K ä se | [ɛː ]/ |
| /eː/ | (long,) unrounded vowel of the front row of the middle-upper rise as in words st eh len | |
| /ɪ / | short, relaxed unrounded vowel of the front row of the upper rise as in the word M i tte | [ɪ ] |
| /iː/ | (long,) unrounded vowel of the front row of the upper rise as in the word M ie te | |
| /ɔ / | short, rounded vowel of the back row of the middle-low rise as in the word o ffen | [ɔ ] |
| /oː/ | (long,) rounded vowel of the back row of the middle-upper rise as in words O fen or R o man | |
| /œ / | short, rounded vowel of the front row of the middle-low rise as in the word H ö lle | [œ ] |
| /øː / | (long,) rounded vowel of the front row of the middle-upper rise as in words H ö hle or Ö dem | [ø(ː) ] |
| /ʊ / | short, relaxed rounded vowel of the back row of the upper rise as in the word M u tter | [ʊ ] |
| /uː/ | (long,) rounded vowel of the back row of the upper rise as in words M u t or K u h | |
| /ʏ / | short, relaxed rounded vowel of the front row of the upper rise as in the word m ü ssen | [ʏ ] |
| /yː/ | (long,) rounded vowel of the front row of the upper rise as in words m ü ßig or Ph y sik |
Consonants
There are 25 phonemes in the German language that reflect consonants. Phonemes are divided into pairs, similar in place and method of formation, but different in terms of voicing. These are pairs /p-b, t-d, k-ɡ, s-z, ʃ-ʒ/, and also in some cases /tʃ ͡-dʒ ͡, f-v/. Voiceless plosive consonants /p, t, k/ in most variants have different aspiration depending on their position in the word: at the beginning of the word it is strongest (for example, Taler[ˈtʰaːlɐ]), in the middle in the absence of stress is weaker ( Vater[ˈfaːtʰɐ]) and the weakest at the end ( Saat). In combinations /ʃt, ʃp/ there is no aspiration ( Stein[ʃtaɪ̯n], Spur[ʃpuːɐ̯]). Voiced /b, d, ɡ, z, ʒ/ are unvoiced in southern German dialects, and additional symbols are applied to them in transcription.
| Sound | Characteristic | Example |
|---|---|---|
| ʔ | Voiceless glottal plosive consonant, a characteristic feature German pronunciation; is rarely considered as an independent sound in German phonetics. | beachten/bəˈʔaxtən/ |
| b | Voiced labiolabial plosive; in southern dialects it is stunned (). | B iene/ˈbiːnə, b̥iːnə /, a b er/ˈaːbər, ˈaːb̥ər / |
| ç | The voiceless palatal spirant is an allophone of the sound [x]. Occurs after front vowels or after consonants, in a diminutive suffix -chen[çən]. | I ch /ɪç /, Fur ch t/fʊrçt/, Frau ch en/fra͡ʊçən/ |
| d | Voiced alveolar plosive, in the southern variants it is deafened (). | d ann/dan, d̥an/, La d en/ˈlaːdən, laːd̥ən/ |
| d͡ʒ | Voiced postalveolar affricate, found only in words of foreign origin, and in southern variants merges with. | Dsch ungel/ˈd͡ʒʊŋəl/ |
| f | Voiceless labiodental spirant | V ogel/ˈfoːɡəl/, Ha f en/ˈhaːfən/ |
| ɡ | Voiced velar plosive, in the southern variants it is pronounced dull ([ ɡ̊ ]) | G anɡ/ˈɡaŋ, ɡ̊aŋ/, La g er/ˈlaːɡər, laːɡ̊ər/ |
| h | Voiceless glottal fricative consonant | H aus/ha͡ʊs/, U h u/ˈuːhu/ |
| j |
Before you say the first german word, you need to know several very important rules of German phonetics. These are the basic rules of pronunciation.
Rule one, which is also the most important: despite all the apparent abruptness of German speech, the muscles of the organs of articulation (tongue, palate, cheeks, chin, etc.) must be relaxed. Be especially careful not to strain your chin. Previously studied English language at first it is very difficult, they quickly get tired, begin to tense their chin muscles, actively articulate with their lips and, as a result, german sounds immediately turn into English.
Second no less important rule: the tongue should lie at the bottom row of teeth in a relaxed state and only make active movements when pronouncing sounds (the middle and back part of the tongue mainly works), each time returning to the main position, and also read in the topic Phonetics.
These first two rules are followed unconditionally. If you forget about them for even a second, consider that your pronunciation is completely ruined.
The next rule: open vowel sounds [a], [o], [u] and some others that we have yet to become familiar with are pronounced freely in the larynx. In this case, the tongue does not tense and does not come off the lower row of teeth, i.e. is in its basic position. We, Russian speakers, have bronchial breathing, we seem to tear air out of the upper part of the lungs. The Germans have diaphragmatic breathing - a sharp exhalation follows and, in combination with a stop in the larynx (coughing), speech acquires a stop-explosive, rolling character.
The lips do not press against the teeth, but, on the contrary, are spaced away from the teeth and do not make active articulatory movements, as, for example, in English or French. The basic position of the lips is like that of a duck's beak.
Speak German by opening your mouth wide, actively working your jaw, especially when pronouncing open vowels. Never speak with clenched teeth.
And one more important rule: articulation always precedes sound. That is, first put the organs of articulation in their original position and only after that begin to pronounce the word. The movement of the organs of articulation must be ahead of the sound.
Now let's move on to reading. If starting to learn English is unthinkable without learning the alphabet, then for the German language the alphabet is not so important - almost all letters are read the same as in Latin, many are pronounced the same as in Russian. But letter combinations play an extremely important role in the German language.
We'll start with numbers. Knowing numerals is useful in itself, but they will also help us get acquainted with almost all German letter combinations.
The letter combination “ei” is always read as “ai” [áj], and the sound “a” is short and percussive, and “j” is extremely strong.
In the transcription, the Russian inactive “y” sign is specially replaced with a stronger “j”.
1 - eins [ájns]
2 - zwei [color]
3 - drei [draj]
The letter combination “ie” is read as a single long sound. Pronounce it with a little emphasis.
4 - vier [fir]
7 - sieben [zibn]
6 - sechs [zeks] - briefly, abruptly, the jaw jerked down almost convulsively, but the mouth opened quite wide. The letter combination “chs” is read as .
Now pay attention: we read the letter “s” in numbers 6 and 7 as “z”. Why? - There is a rule:
The letter “s” at the beginning of a word and followed by a vowel is read as “z”.
5 - fünf [funf]. Ü is one of the heaviest sounds in the German language. It is similar to the Russian “yu”, but “yu” consists of two sounds: “j” and “u”; in German there is no “ü” iot. For correct pronunciation, place your lips as you usually pronounce the sound “u” (lips like a duck’s!), but pronounce “e” - briefly and abruptly: fünf! At the same time, the jaw should jerk down sharply, almost nervously.
8 - acht [aht], ch - reads like “x”.
Attention! The sound [t] should not resemble the sound “ch” or English [t], i.e. When pronouncing this sound, you should not raise the tip of your tongue. - On the contrary, the tip of the tongue presses down on the alveoli of the lower row of teeth.
9 - neun [new], letter combination eu - always read as “oj”, where the stressed “o” is read briefly, abruptly, and “j” is read strongly and long.
Remember: the sound “o” is not distorted in German! In Russian the words “milk”, “bell tower”, etc. we pronounce it approximately like this: “soap”, “kylakolny”. For a German this is unacceptable: where the letter “o” is written, the German will “produce” a clear “o” sound.
11 - elf [elf]. The “L” sound in German is always soft!
Although the sound “L” is soft, it is impossible to soften the subsequent vowel, especially the sound “o”. For example, the word lassen cannot be read as [lyasn] or [lasn], - first there is a soft “L”, followed by a clear sound “a” - [lásn], but you cannot break the word when pronouncing [l-asn]. Another example is the verb loben. It is unacceptable to pronounce [lobn] or [lyobn], only [lyobn] - in one word, without breaking it.
Attention: Z is the letter “c” always and everywhere!
12 - zwölf [zwölf] The sound “ö”, unlike the Russian “ё”, is a little harder.
10 - zehn [tseyn] - In this word the letter “h” is an unpronounceable sign of longitude.
13 - dreizehn [dráj tseyn]
14 - vierzehn [fir zein]
15 - fünfzehn [fünf zein]
18 - achtzehn [ah tsein]
19 - neunzehn [nojn tsein]
As you can see, the technique for forming numerals from 13 to 19 is simple: drei + zehn = dreizehn, with the emphasis on the first syllable. Only the numerals 16 and 17 have some peculiarities in pronunciation:
16 - sechzehn [zehtsein]
17 - siebzehn [siebzein]
Now let’s compare: in the numeral 8 - acht we pronounced the letter combination ch as [x], and in 16 - sechzehn softly [хь]. Why? It’s simple: after the open sounds [a], [o], [u] there is a relatively free sound [x]: Buch [boom], Achtung [ákhtung], and after the clamped [i] and [e] the same clamped sound follows [хь]: ich [ich], echt [echt], etc. But under no circumstances should you pronounce “хь” instead of “хь”.
The length and brevity of vowel pronunciation plays an important role in the German language. It has a meaningful meaning. There are rules that dictate where you need to read briefly and where you need to read for a long time. Remember the most important thing:
A short sound is always a sound that comes before a cluster of consonants, two or more: Zimmer, alle, Tisch, zwitschern...
And the second rule:
A long sound is always a sound represented in writing by a double vowel: Saal, Moor, Meer..., and also if the vowel is written with a longitude sign h and is followed by a consonant: Ahn, Ohr, Uhr, Ehre...
Let's continue reading, taking into account the rules of brevity and length.
Das Zimmer [tsimmr] room
das Regal [regal] shelf
das Fenster [fenster] window
das Buch [boom] book
das Bild [bilt] picture
das Sofa [zofa] sofa
das Telefon [t´telephone] telephone
das Tonbandgerät [tone bow geret] tape recorder (Letter ä - [e])
Die Wohnung [wohnung] apartment
die Lampe [lampe] lamp
die Uhr [у:р] watch
die Tür [tur] door
die Wand [shroud] wall
die Ecke [ekke] angle
The numbers from 20 to 90 are read as follows:
40 - vierzig [firtsikh]
50 - fünfzig [fünfzig]
60 - sechzig [zekhtsikh]
70 - siebzig [zibtsikh]
80 - achtzig [akhtsikh]
90 - neunzig [new]
Attention! The ending -ig is read as [ich], for example, richtig [richtikh], wichtig [vikhtikh].
The letter “ß” is pronounced like “s”, vowels before this letter are always read for a long time. For example, groß, Straße, Fuß, etc.
The following numerals: 100 - einhundert [hundert], 200 - zweihundert, 300 - dreihundert, etc. 1000 - eintausend [taosent].
Those who have previously studied English should remember that in German, according to the law of deafening the final consonant, the letter “d” at the end of a word is read as [t].
Excerpt from the book "German Language. 30 Lessons from Zero to Perfection" by Alexander Bogdanov
Characteristic features of German intonation
The concept of intonation includes, first of all, the rhythm of speech and melody.
For German speech the most important point intonation is not melodic, but a special, peculiar rhythm that sharply distinguishes German speech from Russian. This rhythm is determined by the following points:
Sharp emphasis on stressed syllables, which are pronounced with much greater force than in Russian.
The muting of unstressed syllables, which are pronounced much weaker in German than in Russian.
The presence of long and short vowels.
The presence of a hard attack before vowels.
Aspiration of voiceless consonants.
All these moments give German speech abruptness and precision, while Russian speech sounds smooth and somewhat melodious.
When learning German, it is also necessary to monitor the correct placement of pauses in a sentence and the stress in both the word and the sentence.
Components of intonation
PAUSES In speech, pauses can be longer or shorter. Longer pauses occur at the end of a sentence. Shorter pauses occur between groups of words that are syntactically related. Within a syntactic group, a pause is not allowed.
You cannot separate an article, demonstrative and possessive pronoun or preposition from a noun, as well as a preposition from an article, with a pause.
By using phrasal stress words that are especially important in terms of meaning are highlighted. This also occurs in the Russian language.
STRESS ke, only phrasal stress in German is accompanied by a greater rise in voice than in Russian. Nouns and independent verbs are most often stressed.
Function words: articles, prepositions, and personal pronouns are usually unstressed.
Under word stress is understood as the emphasis of one of the syllables of a word in relation to other syllables of this word. A stressed syllable differs from an unstressed syllable in greater strength, change in pitch, and longer duration.
The stress in German root words in most cases falls on the first syllable of the root: die ′Zeitung, die ′Lehrerin.
In words with separable verb prefixes, the stress always falls on the prefix, for example: ′ an fangen, ′ aus gehen, ′ ein nehmen.
In words with inseparable prefixes er-, ver-, zer-, be-, ge-, ent-, emp-, miß- the emphasis always falls on the root of the word: er′zählen, be′schreiben.
Suffixes are always stressed: - tä t, - tion, - ie, - ei: die Faku′ltät, die Indust′rie, die Par′tei, die Na′tion.
The suffix is almost always stressed - ik: die Mathema′tik (excl. ′Technik).
Compound words have two stresses in German: main and secondary. In compound words, the main stress always falls on the first word, subsequent parts of the compound word bear secondary stress:
der′ Lese saal, das Ma′ schinen bauwerk
